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The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a research facility currently in low earth [[orbit]]. It is being assembled with international cooperation between the [[United States]] ([[NASA]]), [[Russia]] ([[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]]), [[Japan]] ([[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]), [[Canada]] ([[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]]) and several [[Europe]]an countries ([[European Space Agency|ESA]]). The ISS is the largest space station ever assembled, and has been continuously inhabited since [[November 2]] [[2000]]. At present the it has a capacity for a crew of three, which will be expanded to six when construction is complete in 2010. It is planned to remain operational through 2016.
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{{Image|InternationalSpaceStationPatch.png|left|200px|The ISS insignia.}}
{{Image|Iss-2011.jpg|right|350px|The ISS on July 19, 2011, photographed from the [[space shuttle]] ''[[Atlantis (space shuttle)|Atlantis]]''.}}
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{{Image|Iss sts129 big.jpg|right|300px|The ISS, photographed in December 2009 by the [[STS-129]] crew of the [[Space Shuttle]] Atlantis shortly after undocking to return to Earth. Visible on the ISS are numerous modules, [[truss]]es, and long wing-like [[solar panel]]s.}}
 
The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a research facility currently in low earth [[orbit]]. It is being assembled with international cooperation between the [[United States of America]] ([[NASA]]), [[Russia]] ([[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]]), [[Japan]] ([[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]), [[Canada]] ([[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]]) and several [[Europe]]an countries ([[European Space Agency|ESA]]). The ISS is the largest space station ever assembled, and has been continuously inhabited since November 2, 2000. At present the it has a capacity for a crew of three, which will be expanded to six when construction is complete in 2012. It is planned to remain operational through 2016.


==History==
==History==
As the the [[Cold War]] and the [[space race]] came to a close the United States approached foreign partners in order to collaborate on an international space station. Announced in 1993, the project was initially called Space Station Alpha.<ref name="gao">{{cite web |url=http://archive.gao.gov/t2pbat3/151975.pdf |title=''Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research''|accessdate=2006-11-03 |author=GAO |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year=1994 |month=June |format=PDF |work= |publisher=GAO |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> It was designed to combine elements from various planned space stations of the participating space agencies: NASA's [[Space Station Freedom]], Russia's [[Mir-2]], ESA's [[Columbus]], and the [[Japanese Experiment Module]].
As the the [[Cold War]] and the [[space race]] came to a close the United States approached foreign partners in order to collaborate on an international space station. Announced in 1993, the project was initially called Space Station Alpha.<ref name="gao">{{cite web |url=http://archive.gao.gov/t2pbat3/151975.pdf |title=''Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research''|accessdate=2006-11-03 |author=GAO |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year=1994 |month=June |format=PDF |work= |publisher=GAO |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> It was designed to combine elements from various planned space stations of the participating space agencies: NASA's [[Space Station Freedom]], Russia's [[Mir-2]], ESA's [[Columbus]], and the [[Japanese Experiment Module]].


===Assembly Begins===
The first section, [[Zarya]], was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian [[Proton rocket]]. Two further pieces, the [[Unity Module]] and [[Zvezda service module]], were added before the [[Expedition 1|first crew]] arrived on [[November 2]], 2000. It consisted of U.S. astronaut [[William Shepherd]] and two Russian cosmonauts, [[Yuri Gidzenko]] and [[Sergei Krikalev]]. The [[Destiny Laboratory Module]], the most recent pressurized module, was delivered to the station in 2001.
The first section, the [[Zarya|Zarya Functional Cargo Block]], was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian [[Proton rocket]]. Two further pieces (the [[Unity Module]] and [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda service module]]) were added before the first crew, [[Expedition 1]], was sent. [[Expedition 1]] docked to the ISS on [[November 2]], [[2000]], and consisted of U.S. [[astronaut]] [[William Shepherd]] and two Russian cosmonauts, [[Yuri Gidzenko]] and [[Sergei Krikalev]].
 
''Zarya'', the first ISS module, was launched by a [[Proton rocket]] in November 1998. The [[STS-88]] shuttle mission followed two weeks after ''Zarya'' was launched, bringing ''Unity'', the first of three node modules, and connecting it to ''Zarya''. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian module ''Zvezda'' was added, allowing a minimum crew of two astronauts or cosmonauts to be  on the ISS permanently. Since 2000, the only main pressurized module delivered to the ISS was the [[Destiny Laboratory Module]] by [[STS-98]] in 2001.
 
===Columbia disaster and changes in construction plans===
 
====Disaster and consequences====
After the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] on [[February 1]] [[2003]], and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the U.S. [[Space Shuttle program]], followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS until 2006.
 
The Space Shuttle program resumed flight on [[July 26]] [[2005]], with the [[STS-114]] mission of [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']]. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster, and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external tank]], leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.
 
Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] transports and the [[STS-114]] shuttle flight took care of this problem.
 
====Changes in construction plans====
ISS construction is now far behind the original planned schedule for completion in 2004 or 2005. This is mainly due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|''Columbia'' disaster]] in early 2003 (although there had been prior delays due partly to Shuttle problems, and partly to delays stemming from the Russian space agency's budget constraints). During the shuttle stand-down, construction of the ISS was halted and the science conducted aboard was limited due to the crew size of two.
 
As of the beginning of 2006, many changes were made to the originally planned ISS, even before the Columbia disaster.  Modules and other structures were cancelled or replaced and the number of Shuttle flights to the ISS was reduced from previously planned numbers. Still, the newest ISS Shuttle launch manifest and the current ISS design scheme reveal that more than 80% of the hardware intended to be part of the ISS in the late 90s is still planned to be orbited to the ISS by its scheduled completion date in 2010.
 
In March 2006, a meeting of the heads of the five participating space agencies accepted the new ISS construction schedule that plans to complete the ISS by 2010.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 3 March 2006 | url = http://www.flightglobal.com/Articles/2006/03/03/Navigation/177/205237/NASA+commits+to+Shuttle+missions+to+International+Space.html flightglobal.com | title = NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = FlightGlobal | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> A crew of six is expected to be established in 2009, after the Shuttle's next 12 construction flights following the second [[Return to Flight]] mission [[STS-121]]. Requirements for stepping up the crew size include enhanced environmental support on the ISS, a second Soyuz permanently docked on the station to function as a second 'lifeboat', more frequent Progress flights to provide double the amount of consumables, more fuel for orbit raising maneuvers, and a sufficient supply line of experimental equipment.
 
===Current assembled components===
The ISS currently consists of four main pressurized modules: two Russian modules [[Zarya | ''Zarya'']] and [[Zvezda (ISS) | ''Zvezda'']], and two US modules [[Destiny Laboratory Module|''Destiny'']] and [[Unity Module|''Unity'']]. Other pressurized sections of the current configuration are the [[Quest Joint Airlock]] and the [[Pirs docking compartment]]. Spacecraft docked to the ISS also extend the pressurized volume. At least one Soyuz spacecraft is always docked as a 'lifeboat' and is replaced every six months by a new Soyuz as part of crew rotation.


Although not permanently docked with the ISS, a [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]] (MPLM) forms part of the ISS during Shuttle missions that include an MPLM. The MPLM is attached to ''Unity'' and is used for resupply and logistics flights.
The future of the ISS was uncertain after the [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] was destroyed in 2003 and the shuttle program was suspended for two and a half years. During this time crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian [[Soyuz]] spacecraft. Beginning with [[Expedition 7]], station crews consisted of only two astronauts. Construction has resumed, but is far behind the original schedule, planned for completion in 2004 or 2005. Modules and other structures have been canceled or replaced and the number of scheduled construction flights were reduced. The schedule called to expand the station crew to six in 2009, and the completion of all construction by 2010.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 3 March 2006 | url = http://www.flightglobal.com/Articles/2006/03/03/Navigation/177/205237/NASA+commits+to+Shuttle+missions+to+International+Space.html flightglobal.com | title = NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = FlightGlobal | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> 2012 is the earliest expected completion date.


===Components to be launched===
===Components to be launched===
Nearly all already built pressurized modules are planned to be launched by the Space Shuttle. By the time the ISS is completed in 2010, it will have, in addition to the modules already in orbit:
By the time the ISS is completed, it will have, in addition to the modules already in orbit:


* Two more node modules ([[Node 2|Harmony]] and [[Node 3]]).
* A [[Node Module]];
* Three more laboratory modules (The [[Columbus Laboratory Module]], [[Japanese Experiment Module]] and [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]]s).
* Another laboratory module ([[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]]).
* A [[Cupola (ISS)|cupola]].
* A [[Docking Cargo Module]] to assist in the docking of [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] spacecraft to the station.


In addition, there is also a large unpressurized [[Integrated Truss Structure|truss]] system partially in place that will eventually support the prominent [[ISS Solar Arrays|solar arrays]], as well as external experiments like the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] and the [[Plasma Contactor Unit]] [http://space-power.grc.nasa.gov/ppo/projects/iss/plasmacontactor.html].
===Components===
There is a large unpressurized [[Integrated Truss Structure|truss]] system in place that support the prominent [[ISS Solar Arrays|solar arrays]], as well as external experiments like the [[Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer]] and the [[Plasma Contactor Unit]] [http://space-power.grc.nasa.gov/ppo/projects/iss/plasmacontactor.html].
An addition to unpressurized experiment accommodations on ISS is being developed by the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], called [[EXPRESS Logistics Carrier]], or ELC (formerly EXPRESS Pallet). "EXPRESS" stands for "EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to the Space Station". Several ELC units will be installed on the exterior of ISS to provide a home for space science experiments. ELC units provide not just a berth for experiments, but also provide power, heat, and command & [[telemetry]] links to experiments.
An addition to unpressurized experiment accommodations on ISS is being developed by the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], called [[EXPRESS Logistics Carrier]], or ELC (formerly EXPRESS Pallet). "EXPRESS" stands for "EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to the Space Station". Several ELC units will be installed on the exterior of ISS to provide a home for space science experiments. ELC units provide not just a berth for experiments, but also provide power, heat, and command & [[telemetry]] links to experiments.


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===Power supply===
===Power supply===
The source of [[Electric power|electrical power]] for the ISS is the sun: light is converted into electricity through the use of [[solar panels]]. Before assembly flight 4A (shuttle mission [[STS-97]], [[November 30]], [[2000]]) the only power source was the Russian solar panels attached to the [[Zarya]] and [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda]] modules: the Russian segment of the station uses 28 [[volt]]s [[direct current|dc]] (like the [[Space Shuttle program|Shuttle]]). In the rest of the station, electricity is provided by the solar panels attached to the truss at a [[voltage]] ranging from 130 to 180 volts dc. The power is then stabilized and distributed at 160 volts dc and then converted to the user-required 124 volts dc. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters, and this feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian [[Science Power Platform]]: the Russian segment will depend on the U.S. built solar arrays for power supply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/solar_arrays.htm|title=Boeing: Integrated Defense Systems - NASA Systems - International Space Station - Solar Power|accessdate=2006-06-05|publisher=Boeing|language=English}}</ref>
The source of [[Electric power|electrical power]] for the ISS is the sun: light is converted into electricity through the use of [[solar panels]]. Before assembly flight 4A (shuttle mission [[STS-97]], [[November 30]], 2000) the only power source was the Russian solar panels attached to the [[Zarya]] and [[Zvezda (ISS)|Zvezda]] modules: the Russian segment of the station uses 28 [[volt]]s [[direct current|dc]] (like the [[Space Shuttle program|Shuttle]]). In the rest of the station, electricity is provided by the solar panels attached to the truss at a [[voltage]] ranging from 130 to 180 volts dc. The power is then stabilized and distributed at 160 volts dc and then converted to the user-required 124 volts dc. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters, and this feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian [[Science Power Platform]]: the Russian segment will depend on the U.S. built solar arrays for power supply.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/space/spacestation/systems/solar_arrays.htm|title=Boeing: Integrated Defense Systems - NASA Systems - International Space Station - Solar Power|accessdate=2006-06-05|publisher=Boeing|language=English}}</ref>


Using a [[High voltage|high-voltage]] (130 to 160 volts) distribution line in the so-called U.S. part of the station led to smaller power lines and thus weight savings.
Using a [[High voltage|high-voltage]] (130 to 160 volts) distribution line in the so-called U.S. part of the station led to smaller power lines and thus weight savings.


===Life support===
===Life support===
{{Image|Iss-caldwell-dyson.jpg|right|250px|[[Astronaut]] [[Tracy Caldwell Dyson]] in the cupola of the ISS, September 11th, 2010. This section is the station's main observatory.}}
The ISS [[Environmental Control and Life Support System]] provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen levels, water, and fire extinguishing, among other things. The [[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]] system generates oxygen aboard the station. The highest priority for the life support system is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects processes and stores water and waste used and produced by the crew. For example, the system recycles fluid from the sink, shower, urine, and condensation. [[Activated carbon|Activated charcoal]] filters are the primary method for removing byproducts of human metabolism from the air.
The ISS [[Environmental Control and Life Support System]] provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen levels, water, and fire extinguishing, among other things. The [[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]] system generates oxygen aboard the station. The highest priority for the life support system is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects processes and stores water and waste used and produced by the crew. For example, the system recycles fluid from the sink, shower, urine, and condensation. [[Activated carbon|Activated charcoal]] filters are the primary method for removing byproducts of human metabolism from the air.
<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm Breathing Easy on the Space Station] science.nasa.gov, [[13 November]] [[2000]]. Retrieved [[3 January]] [[2007]].</ref>
<ref>[http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast13nov_1.htm Breathing Easy on the Space Station] science.nasa.gov, 13 November 2000. Retrieved 3 January 2007.</ref>


===Attitude control===
===Attitude control===
The attitude (orientation) of the station is maintained by either of two mechanisms. Normally, a system using several [[control moment gyroscope]]s (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, i.e. with ''Destiny'' forward of ''Unity'', the P truss on the port side and ''Pirs'' on the earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes saturated, it can lose its ability to control station attitude. If this happens, the Russian Attitude Control System can take over, using thrusters to maintain station attitude and allowing the CMG system to desaturate. This has happened automatically as a safety measure, as happened for example during [[Expedition 10]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html | title = International Space Station Status Report #05-7 | date = Feb. 11, 2005 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> When a shuttle orbiter is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude. This procedure was used during [[STS-117]] as the S3/S4 truss was being installed.
The attitude (orientation) of the station is maintained by either of two mechanisms. Normally, a system using several [[control moment gyroscope]]s (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, i.e. with ''Destiny'' forward of ''Unity'', the P truss on the port side and ''Pirs'' on the earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes saturated, it can lose its ability to control station attitude. If this happens, the Russian Attitude Control System can take over, using thrusters to maintain station attitude and allowing the CMG system to desaturate. This has happened automatically as a safety measure, as happened for example during [[Expedition 10]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/spacenews/reports/issreports/2005/iss05-7.html | title = International Space Station Status Report #05-7 | date = Feb. 11, 2005 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> When a shuttle orbiter is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude. This procedure was used during [[STS-117]] as the S3/S4 truss was being installed.


{{Image|International Space Station Space Shuttle Atlantis Sun Transit 2010.jpg|left|250px|Image of the [[solar transit]] of the International Space Station and [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]] 50 minutes before docking, taken from the area of [[Madrid]] ([[Spain]]) on May 16th 2010 at 13h 28min 55s [[Universal time|UT]].}}
==Scientific research==
==Scientific research==
One of the main goals of the ISS is to provide a place to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station.  The main fields of research include [[biology]] (including [[biomedical research]] and [[biotechnology]]), [[physics]] (including [[fluid physics]], [[materials science]], and [[quantum physics]]), [[astronomy]] (including [[cosmology]]), and [[meteorology]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web | url = http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html | title = Fields of Research | date = June 26, 2007 | publisher = NASA}}</ref>  <ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{cite web | url = http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html | title = Getting on Board | date = June 26, 2007 | publisher = NASA}}</ref>  As of 2007, little experimentation other than the study of the long-term effects of microgravity on humans has taken place.  With four new research modules set to arrive at the ISS by 2010, however, more specialized research is expected to begin.
One of the main goals of the ISS is to provide a place to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station.  The main fields of research include [[biology]] (including [[biomedical research]] and [[biotechnology]]), [[physics]] (including [[fluid physics]], [[materials science]], and [[quantum physics]]), [[astronomy]] (including [[cosmology]]), and [[meteorology]].<ref name="NASA Fields of Research">{{cite web | url = http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/A-fieldsresearch/index.html | title = Fields of Research | date = June 26, 2007 | publisher = NASA}}</ref>  <ref name="NASA ISS Goals">{{cite web | url = http://pdlprod3.hosc.msfc.nasa.gov/B-gettingonboard/index.html | title = Getting on Board | date = June 26, 2007 | publisher = NASA}}</ref>  As of 2007, little experimentation other than the study of the long-term effects of microgravity on humans has taken place.  With four new research modules set to arrive at the ISS by 2010, however, more specialized research is expected to begin.


===Scientific ISS modules===
===Scientific ISS modules===
The [[Destiny Laboratory Module]] is the main research facility currently aboard the ISS.  Produced by [[NASA]] and launched in February 2001, it is a research facility for general experiments.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html | title = NASA - U.S. Destiny Laboratory | date = March 26, 2007 | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> The [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus module]] is another research facility, though it was designed by the [[European Space Agency|ESA]] for the ISS.  Its purpose is to facilitate scientific experiments and is set to be launched into space with the [[STS-122]] shuttle launch on [[December 6]], [[2007]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts122/ | title = NASA - STS-122 | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = June 26, 2007 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> It should provide a [[European Drawer Rack|generic laboratory]] as well as ones specifically designed for [[Biolab|biology]], [[European Physiology Modules|biomedical research]], and [[Fluid Science Laboratory|fluid physics]].  There are also a number of planned expansions that will be implemented to study [[quantum physics]] and [[cosmology]].  The [[Japanese Experiment Module]], also known as ''Kibō'', is scheduled to be in space after the [[STS-127]] launch in or around January, 2009.  It is being developed by [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]] in order to function as an observatory and to measure various astronomical data.  The [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier]], developed by [[NASA]], is set to be launched for the ISS with the [[STS-129]] mission, which is expected to take place no earlier than [[September 11]], [[2009]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/shuttle/manifest.txt | title = Unofficial Space Shuttle Manifest | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = June 25, 2007 | publisher = Small World Communications}}</ref> It will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to locally process data from experiments.  The [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]], created by the [[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]], is expected to launch for the ISS in late 2009.  It will supply the proper resources for general microgravity experiments.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.khrunichev.ru/khrunichev_eng/live/full_mks.asp?id=13190
The [[Destiny Laboratory Module]] is the main research facility currently aboard the ISS.  Produced by [[NASA]] and launched in February 2001, it is a research facility for general experiments.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/destiny.html | title = NASA - U.S. Destiny Laboratory | date = March 26, 2007 | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> The [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus module]] is another research facility, though it was designed by the [[European Space Agency|ESA]] for the ISS.  Its purpose is to facilitate scientific experiments and is set to be launched into space with the [[STS-122]] shuttle launch on [[December 6]], 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts122/ | title = NASA - STS-122 | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = June 26, 2007 | publisher = NASA}}</ref> It should provide a [[European Drawer Rack|generic laboratory]] as well as ones specifically designed for [[Biolab|biology]], [[European Physiology Modules|biomedical research]], and [[Fluid Science Laboratory|fluid physics]].  There are also a number of planned expansions that will be implemented to study [[quantum physics]] and [[cosmology]].  The [[Japanese Experiment Module]], also known as ''Kibō'', is scheduled to be in space after the [[STS-127]] launch in or around January, 2009.  It is being developed by [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]] in order to function as an observatory and to measure various astronomical data.  The [[ExPRESS Logistics Carrier]], developed by [[NASA]], is set to be launched for the ISS with the [[STS-129]] mission, which is expected to take place no earlier than September 11, 2009.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/shuttle/manifest.txt | title = Unofficial Space Shuttle Manifest | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = June 25, 2007 | publisher = Small World Communications}}</ref> It will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to locally process data from experiments.  The [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]], created by the [[Russian Federal Space Agency|RKA]], is expected to launch for the ISS in late 2009.  It will supply the proper resources for general microgravity experiments.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.khrunichev.ru/khrunichev_eng/live/full_mks.asp?id=13190
| title = KHRUNICHEV STATE RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION SPACE CENTRE | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = 2006 | publisher = Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center}}</ref>
| title = KHRUNICHEV STATE RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION SPACE CENTRE | accessdate = 2007-06-26 | date = 2006 | publisher = Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center}}</ref>


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NASA would also like to study prominent problems in physics. The physics of fluids in microgravity are not completely understood, and researchers would like to be able to accurately model fluids in the future.  Additionally, since fluids in space can be combined nearly completely regardless of their relative weights, there is some interest in investigating the combination of fluids that would not mix well on Earth.  By examining reactions that are slowed down by low gravity and temperatures, scientists also hope to gain new insight concerning [[state of matter|states of matter]] (specifically in regards to [[superconductivity]]).<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />
NASA would also like to study prominent problems in physics. The physics of fluids in microgravity are not completely understood, and researchers would like to be able to accurately model fluids in the future.  Additionally, since fluids in space can be combined nearly completely regardless of their relative weights, there is some interest in investigating the combination of fluids that would not mix well on Earth.  By examining reactions that are slowed down by low gravity and temperatures, scientists also hope to gain new insight concerning [[state of matter|states of matter]] (specifically in regards to [[superconductivity]]).<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />


Additionally, researchers hope to examine [[combustion]] in the presence of less gravity than on Earth.  Any findings involving the efficiency of the burning or the creation of byproducts could improve the process of energy production, which would be of economic and environmental interest.  Scientists plan to use the ISS to examine [[aerosol]]s, [[ozone]], [[water vapor]], and [[oxide]]s in Earth's atmosphere as well as [[cosmic rays]], [[cosmic dust]], [[anti-matter]], and [[dark matter]] in the Universe.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />
Additionally, researchers hope to examine [[combustion]] in the presence of less gravity than on Earth.  Any findings involving the efficiency of the burning or the creation of byproducts could improve the process of energy production, which would be of economic and environmental interest.  Scientists plan to use the ISS to examine [[aerosol]]s, [[ozone]], [[water vapor]], and [[oxide]]s in [[Earth's atmosphere]] as well as [[cosmic rays]], [[cosmic dust]], [[anti-matter]], and [[dark matter]] in the Universe.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" />


The long-term goals of this research are to develop the technology necessary for human-based space and planetary exploration and colonization (including [[life support system]]s, safety precautions, environmental monitoring in space, etc.), new ways to treat diseases, more efficient methods of producing materials, accurate measurements with a precision impossible if done on Earth, a fuller concept of the Universe, and a new understanding from all experiments undertaken.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /> <ref name="NASA ISS Goals" />
The long-term goals of this research are to develop the technology necessary for human-based space and planetary exploration and colonization (including [[life support system]]s, safety precautions, environmental monitoring in space, etc.), new ways to treat diseases, more efficient methods of producing materials, accurate measurements with a precision impossible if done on Earth, a fuller concept of the Universe, and a new understanding from all experiments undertaken.<ref name="NASA Fields of Research" /> <ref name="NASA ISS Goals" />
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===2003 Columbia disaster===
===2003 Columbia disaster===
After the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] on [[February 1]] [[2003]], and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the U.S. [[Space Shuttle program]], followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS until 2006.  Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] transports and the [[STS-114]] shuttle flight took care of this problem.
After the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] on February 1, 2003, and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the U.S. [[Space Shuttle program]], followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS until 2006.  Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] transports and the [[STS-114]] shuttle flight took care of this problem.


===2006 Smoke problem===
===2006 Smoke problem===
On [[September 18]] [[2006]], the [[Expedition 13]] crew activated a smoke alarm in the Russian segment of the International Space Station when fumes from one of three oxygen generator triggered momentary fear about a possible fire. Flight engineer [[Jeffrey Williams]] reported an unusual smell, but officials said there was no fire and the crew was not in any danger.
On September 18, 2006, the [[Expedition 13]] crew activated a smoke alarm in the Russian segment of the International Space Station when fumes from one of three oxygen generator triggered momentary fear about a possible fire. Flight engineer [[Jeffrey Williams]] reported an unusual smell, but officials said there was no fire and the crew was not in any danger.


The crew reported at first smoke in the cabin and a smell. It turns out what was happening was a leak of potassium hydroxide from an oxygen vent. The equipment was turned off. [[Potassium hydroxide]] is odorless and the smell reported by Williams more likely was associated with an overheated rubber gasket in the [[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]] system.
The crew reported at first smoke in the cabin and a smell. It turns out what was happening was a leak of potassium hydroxide from an oxygen vent. The equipment was turned off. [[Potassium hydroxide]] is odorless and the smell reported by Williams more likely was associated with an overheated rubber gasket in the [[Elektron (ISS)|Elektron]] system.
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{{cite web | url = http://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html| title = Oxygen Generator Problem Triggers Station Alarm | publisher = Spaceflight Now}}</ref>
{{cite web | url = http://spaceflightnow.com/station/exp13/060918elektron.html| title = Oxygen Generator Problem Triggers Station Alarm | publisher = Spaceflight Now}}</ref>


On [[November 02]] [[2006]] the payload brought by the Russian [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] M-58 allow the crew to repair the Elektron using spare parts.<ref>
On November 02, 2006 the payload brought by the Russian [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] M-58 allow the crew to repair the Elektron using spare parts.<ref>
{{cite web | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Oxygen_Regeneration_Restored_At_ISS_999.html| title = Oxygen Regeneration Restored At ISS | publisher = Space Travel}}</ref>
{{cite web | url = http://www.space-travel.com/reports/Oxygen_Regeneration_Restored_At_ISS_999.html| title = Oxygen Regeneration Restored At ISS | publisher = Space Travel}}</ref>


===2007 computer failure===
===2007 computer failure===
On [[14 June]] [[2007]] during [[Expedition 15]] and on flight day 7 of [[STS-117]]'s visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, which caused temperatures to rise.  A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm which awakened the crew at 11:43 UTC.<ref>
On 14 June 2007 during [[Expedition 15]] and on flight day 7 of [[STS-117]]'s visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, which caused temperatures to rise.  A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm which awakened the crew at 11:43 UTC.<ref>
{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts117/news/STS-117-12.html| title = STS-117 MCC Status Report #12 | publisher = NASA}}</ref><ref name="space.com 070616">[http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/070616_iss_computer_prog.html More Progress Made to Recover Space Station Computers], [[Space.com]], Tariq Malik, posted: 16 June 2007 6:47 p.m. ET</ref>  The two computer systems (command and navigation) are each composed of three computers.  Each computer is referred to as a Lane.  <ref name="space.com 070616"/>   
{{cite web | url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts117/news/STS-117-12.html| title = STS-117 MCC Status Report #12 | publisher = NASA}}</ref><ref name="space.com 070616">[http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/070616_iss_computer_prog.html More Progress Made to Recover Space Station Computers], [[Space.com]], Tariq Malik, posted: 16 June 2007 6:47 p.m. ET</ref>  The two computer systems (command and navigation) are each composed of three computers.  Each computer is referred to as a Lane.  <ref name="space.com 070616"/>   


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===Planned===
===Planned===
* European (ESA) [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft (scheduled for January 2008)<ref name="ESA-june">{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaMI/ATV/SEM1PQXXV2F_0.html|title=First ATV leaves Europe to prepare for launch from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|date=[[June 15]], [[2007]]|accessdate=2007-06-15}}</ref>
* European (ESA) [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft (scheduled for January 2008)<ref name="ESA-june">{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/esaMI/ATV/SEM1PQXXV2F_0.html|title=First ATV leaves Europe to prepare for launch from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]|date=[[June 15]], 2007|accessdate=2007-06-15}}</ref>
* Japanese (JAXA) [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) resupply vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2009)<ref name="launch manifest"/>
* Japanese (JAXA) [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) resupply vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2009)
* [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (officially scheduled for 2014)
* [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (officially scheduled for 2014)


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==Expeditions==
==Expeditions==
{{Image|Iss_sts117.jpg|right|350px|The ISS in its formation as of mid 2007. Photo made on June, 2007. Credits: STS-117 Crew, NASA}}
All permanent station crews are named "Expedition N", where N is sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions (aka Increments) have an average duration of half a year.   
All permanent station crews are named "Expedition N", where N is sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions (aka Increments) have an average duration of half a year.   


The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of [[September 11]], [[2006]], it has had 159 (non-distinct) visitors. [[Mir]] had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See [[Space station#List of occupied space stations, with statistics|Space station]]). The number of distinct visitors of the ISS is 124 (see [[list of International Space Station visitors]]).
The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of September 11, 2006, it has had 159 (non-distinct) visitors. [[Mir]] had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See [[Space station#List of occupied space stations, with statistics|Space station]]). The number of distinct visitors of the ISS is 124 (see [[list of International Space Station visitors]]).


==Legal aspects==
==Legal aspects==
===Agreement===
===Agreement===
 
The legal structure that regulates the space station is multi-layered. The primary layer establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an international treaty signed on January 28, 1998 by fifteen governments involved in the Space Station project. The ISS consists of the United States, Canada, Japan, the Russian Federation, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Article 1 outlines its purpose:
The legal structure that regulates the space station is multi-layered. The primary layer establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an international treaty signed on [[January 28]] [[1998]] by fifteen governments involved in the Space Station project. The ISS consists of the United States, Canada, Japan, the Russian Federation, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Article 1 outlines its purpose:


''This Agreement is a long term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilisation of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law''.<ref name = "legal framework">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 20 July 2001 | url = http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAH7O0VMOC_iss_0.html | title = International Space Station Legal Framework | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = European Space Agency | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
''This Agreement is a long term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilisation of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law''.<ref name = "legal framework">{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 20 July 2001 | url = http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAH7O0VMOC_iss_0.html | title = International Space Station Legal Framework | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = European Space Agency | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
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Giving a precise cost estimate for the ISS is, however, not straightforward; it is, for instance, hard to determine which costs should actually be contributed to the ISS program or how the Russian contribution should be measured, as the Russian space agency runs at considerably lower USD costs than the other partners.
Giving a precise cost estimate for the ISS is, however, not straightforward; it is, for instance, hard to determine which costs should actually be contributed to the ISS program or how the Russian contribution should be measured, as the Russian space agency runs at considerably lower USD costs than the other partners.
===NASA===
====Overview====
The overall majority of costs for NASA are incurred by flight operations and expenses for the overall management of the ISS. Costs for initially building the U.S. portion of the ISS modules and external structure on the ground and construction in space as well as crew and supply flights to the ISS do account for far less than the general operating costs ''(see [[#2005 ISS budget allocation|annual budget allocation below]])''.
NASA does not include the basic Space Shuttle program costs in the expenses incurred for the ISS program, despite the fact that the Space Shuttle has been nearly exclusively used for ISS construction and supply flights since December 1998.
NASA's 2007 budget request lists costs for the ISS (without Shuttle costs) as $25.6 billion for the years 1994 to 2005.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2006 | url = http://www.nasa.gov/about/budget/index.html | title = NASA 2007 Budget and 2006 Strategic Plan | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = NASA | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref> For each of 2005 and 2006 about $1.7 to 1.8 billion are allocated to the ISS program. The annual expenses will increase until 2010 when they will reach $2.3 billion and should then stay at the same level, however inflation-adjusted, until 2016, the defined end of the program. NASA has allocated between $300 and 500 million for program shutdown costs in 2017.
====2005 ISS budget allocation====
The $1.8 billion expensed in 2005 consisted of:<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = 2005 | url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/55411main_28%20ISS.pdf | title = International Space Station Major Events FY 2005 | format = | work = International Space Station | publisher = NASA | accessmonthday = 16 September | accessyear = 2006}}</ref>
*'''Development of new hardware''': $70 million were allocated to core development, for instance development of systems like navigation, data support or environmental.
*'''Spacecraft Operations''': $800 million consisting of $125 million for each of software, extravehicular activity systems, and logistics and maintenance. An additional $150 million is spent on flight, avionics and crew systems. The rest of $250 million goes to overall ISS management.
*'''Launch and Mission operations''': Although the Shuttle launch costs are not considered part of the ISS budget, mission and mission integration ($300 million), medical support ($25 million) and Shuttle launch site processing ($125 million) is within the ISS budget.
*'''Operations Program Integration''': $350 million was spent on maintaining and sustaining U.S. flight and ground hardware and software to ensure integrity of the ISS design and the continuous, safe operability.
*'''ISS cargo/crew''': $140 million was spent for purchase of supplies, cargo and crew capability for Progress and Soyuz flights.
====Shuttle costs as part of ISS costs====
Only costs for mission and mission integration and launch site processing for the 33 ISS-related Shuttle flights are included in NASA's ISS program costs. Basic costs of the Shuttle program are, as mentioned above, not considered part of the overall ISS costs by NASA, because the Shuttle program is considered an independent program aside from the ISS. Since December 1998 the Shuttle has, however, been used nearly exclusively for ISS flights (since the first ISS flight in December 1998, until December 2006 only 5 flights out of 25 flights have not been to the ISS, and only the planned [[Hubble Space Telescope]] servicing mission (see [[STS-125]]) in 2008 will not be ISS-related out of 14 planned missions until the end of the Space Shuttle program in 2010).
Shuttle program costs during ISS operations from 1999 to 2005 (disregarding the first ISS flight in December 1998) have amounted to approximately $24 billion (1999: $3,028.0 million, 2000: $3,011.2 million, 2001: $3,125.7 million, 2002: $3,278.8 million, 2003: $3,252.8 million, 2004: $3,945.0 million, 2005: $4,319.2 million). In order to derive the ISS-related costs, expenses for non-ISS flights need to be subtracted, which amount to 20% of the total or about $5 billion. For the years 2006-2011 NASA projects another $20.5 billion in Space Shuttle program costs (2006: $4,777.5 million, 2007: $4,056.7 million, 2008: $4,087.3 million, 2009: $3,794.8 million, 2010: $3,651.1 million and 2011: $146.7 million). If the Hubble servicing mission is excluded from those costs, ISS-related costs will be approximately $19 billion for Shuttle flights from 2006 until 2011. In total, ISS-related Space Shuttle program costs will therefore be approximately $38 billion.
====Overall ISS costs for NASA====
Assuming NASA's projections of average costs of $2.5 billion from 2011 to 2016 and the end of spending money on the ISS in 2017 (about $300-500 million) after shutdown in 2016 are correct, the overall ISS project costs for NASA from the announcement of the program in 1993 to its end will be about $53 billion (25.6 billion for the years 1994-2005 and about 27 to 28 billion for the years 2006-2017).
There have also been considerable costs for designing [[Space Station Freedom]] in the 1980s and early 1990s, before the ISS program started in 1993. Plans of Space Station Freedom were reused for the International Space Station.
To sum up, although the actual costs NASA views as connected to the ISS are only half of the $100 billion figure often cited in the media, if combined with basic program costs for the Shuttle and the design of the ISS' precursor project Space Station Freedom, the costs reach $100 billion for NASA alone.
===ESA===
ESA calculates that its contribution over the 30 year lifetime of the project will be €8 billion.<ref> [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAQHA0VMOC_iss_0.html ESA: ISS Human Spaceflight and Exploration] </ref> The costs for the Columbus Laboratory total more than €1 billion already, costs for [[Automated Transfer Vehicle|ATV]] development total several hundred million and considering that each [[Ariane 5]] launch costs around €150 million, each ATV launch will incur considerable costs as well. In addition ESA has constructed a [[ground control station]] in the South of Germany in order to control the Columbus Laboratory.
===JAXA===
The development of the Kibo Laboratory, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, has cost about 325 billion yen (about $2.8 billion)<ref>[http://www.cnes-tv.net/cnes_fr/cnesmag/cnesmag24_etranger.pdf Etranger World: Major Changes for Japan's space sector]</ref> In the year 2005, JAXA allocated about 40 billion yen (about 350 million USD) to the ISS program.<ref>[http://www.space.com/spacenews/archive04/budgetarch_090704.html Space News: Japan Seeking 13 Percent Budget Hike for Space Activities]</ref> The annual running costs for Kibo will total around $350 to 400 million. In addition JAXA has committed itself to develop and launch the HTV-Transporter, for which development costs total nearly $1 billion. In total, over the 24 year lifespan of the ISS program, JAXA will contribute well over $10 billion to the ISS program.
===Roskosmos===
A considerable part of the [[Russian Space Agency]]'s budget is used for the ISS. Since 1998 there have been over two dozen Soyuz and Progress flights, the primary crew and cargo transporters since 2003. The question of how much Russia spends on the station (measured in [[United States dollar|USD]]), is, however, not easy to answer. The two modules currently in orbit are derivatives of the [[Mir]] program and therefore development costs are much lower than for other modules. In addition, the exchange rate between ruble and USD is not adequately giving a real comparison to what the costs for Russia really are.
===CSA===
Canada, whose main contribution to the ISS is the [[Mobile Servicing System|Canadarm2]], estimates that through the last 20 years it has contributed about [[Canadian dollar|C$]]1.4 billion to the ISS.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/facts.asp |title= International Space Station facts and figures |accessdate=2007-01-28 |format= |work= }}</ref>


==Criticism==
==Criticism==
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Other critics have attacked the ISS on some technical design grounds:
Other critics have attacked the ISS on some technical design grounds:
# [[Jeff Foust]] argued that the ISS requires too much maintenance, especially by risky, expensive [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVAs]];<ref>[http://www.thespacereview.com/article/453/1 The trouble with space stations] [[Jeff Foust]], [[The Space Review]], [[12 September]] [[2005]]. Retrieved [[10 September]] [[2006]]. </ref>
# [[Jeff Foust]] argued that the ISS requires too much maintenance, especially by risky, expensive [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVAs]];<ref>[http://www.thespacereview.com/article/453/1 The trouble with space stations] [[Jeff Foust]], [[The Space Review]], 12 September 2005. Retrieved 10 September 2006. </ref>
# The Astronomical Society of the Pacific has mentioned that its orbit is rather highly inclined, which makes Russian launches cheaper, but US launches more expensive.<ref Name=astrosociety>[http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/34/space2.html Up, Up, and Away] www.astrosociety.org. Retrieved [[10 September]] [[2006]]. </ref> This was intended as a design point, to encourage Russian involvement with the ISS -- and Russian involvement saved the project from abandonment in the wake of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] -- but the choice may have increased the costs of completing the ISS substantially.
# The Astronomical Society of the Pacific has mentioned that its orbit is rather highly inclined, which makes Russian launches cheaper, but US launches more expensive.<ref Name=astrosociety>[http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/34/space2.html Up, Up, and Away] www.astrosociety.org. Retrieved 10 September 2006. </ref> This was intended as a design point, to encourage Russian involvement with the ISS -- and Russian involvement saved the project from abandonment in the wake of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] -- but the choice may have increased the costs of completing the ISS substantially.


In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimates that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of [[human spaceflight|human space exploration]] has been many times the initial public investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/economics.html |title=The Economic Impacts of the U.S. Space Program  |accessdate=2007-01-28 |author=Jerome Schnee |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> However, this can be a rather contentious point: a review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spinoffs is actually very low, except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/spp/eprint/jp_950525.htm NASA Technological Spinoff Fables] www.fas.org. Retrieved [[17 September]] [[2006]].</ref>
In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimates that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of [[human spaceflight|human space exploration]] has been many times the initial public investment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/economics.html |title=The Economic Impacts of the U.S. Space Program  |accessdate=2007-01-28 |author=Jerome Schnee |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= |year= |month= |format= |work= |publisher= |pages= |language= |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref> However, this can be a rather contentious point: a review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spinoffs is actually very low, except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.<ref>[http://www.fas.org/spp/eprint/jp_950525.htm NASA Technological Spinoff Fables] www.fas.org. Retrieved 17 September 2006.</ref>


Critics also say that NASA is often casually credited with "spin-offs" (such as [[Velcro]] and portable computers) that were developed independently for other reasons.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Park |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Virtual Astronaut |url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/4/park.htm |work= |publisher=The New Atlantis |date= |accessdate=2007-01-28 }}</ref>  NASA maintains a list of spin-offs from the construction of the ISS, as well as from work performed on the ISS.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/ISSspin.html| title = International Space Station Spinoffs| accessdate = 2006-09-14| author = NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI) | date = | year = | month = [[2005-21-05]]| format = HTML| publisher = NASA| language = English}}</ref>  However, NASA's official list is much narrower and more arcane than dramatic narratives of billions of dollars of spin-offs.
Critics also say that NASA is often casually credited with "spin-offs" (such as [[Velcro]] and portable computers) that were developed independently for other reasons.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Park |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Virtual Astronaut |url=http://www.thenewatlantis.com/archive/4/park.htm |work= |publisher=The New Atlantis |date= |accessdate=2007-01-28 }}</ref>  NASA maintains a list of spin-offs from the construction of the ISS, as well as from work performed on the ISS.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/ISSspin.html| title = International Space Station Spinoffs| accessdate = 2006-09-14| author = NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI) | date = | year = | month = [[2005-21-05]]| format = HTML| publisher = NASA| language = English}}</ref>  However, NASA's official list is much narrower and more arcane than dramatic narratives of billions of dollars of spin-offs.


It is therefore debatable whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor to society. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value (or lack thereof), it is an important example of international cooperation.<ref>[http://www.spacetoday.org/SpcStns/FirstAnnivOccupy.html International Space Station: Human Residency Third Anniversary] Space Today Online, 2003. Retrieved [[17 September]] [[2006]]. </ref> Others claim that the ISS is an asset that, if properly leveraged, could allow more economical manned Lunar and Mars missions.<ref>[http://www.marstoday.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18482  Interview with Niolai Sevostianov, President, RSC Energia: The mission to Mars is to be international] MarsToday.com, [[2005-12-11]]. Retrieved [[2007-01-16]].</ref> Either way, advocates argue that it misses the point to expect a hard financial return from the ISS; rather, it is intended as part of a general expansion of spaceflight capabilities.
It is therefore debatable whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor to society. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value (or lack thereof), it is an important example of international cooperation.<ref>[http://www.spacetoday.org/SpcStns/FirstAnnivOccupy.html International Space Station: Human Residency Third Anniversary] Space Today Online, 2003. Retrieved 17 September 2006. </ref> Others claim that the ISS is an asset that, if properly leveraged, could allow more economical manned Lunar and Mars missions.<ref>[http://www.marstoday.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=18482  Interview with Niolai Sevostianov, President, RSC Energia: The mission to Mars is to be international] MarsToday.com, [[2005-12-11]]. Retrieved [[2007-01-16]].</ref> Either way, advocates argue that it misses the point to expect a hard financial return from the ISS; rather, it is intended as part of a general expansion of spaceflight capabilities.
<blockquote></blockquote>
<blockquote></blockquote>


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===Microgravity===
===Microgravity===
At the ISS altitude, the gravity from the Earth is still 88% of that at sea level. The state of [[weightlessness]] is a result of the fact that the ISS is in constant free fall, which according to the [[equivalence principle]] is indiscernible from being in a state where all forces, including gravity, are absent. However, due to (1) the drag resulting from the residual atmosphere, (2) vibratory acceleration due to mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS, (3) orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes or thrusters, and (4) the spatial separation from the real [[Center of mass|centre of mass]] of the ISS, the environment on the station is often described as [[microgravity]], with a level of gravity on the order of 2 to 1000 millionths of ''g'' (the value varies with the frequency of the disturbance; the low value occurs at frequencies below 0.1 Hz, the higher value at frequencies of 100 Hz or more).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/users/downloads/userguides/physenv.pdf|title=European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms|accessdate=2006-05-16|format=PDF|publisher=European Space Agency|language=English}}</ref>
At the ISS altitude, the gravity from the Earth is still 88% of that at sea level. The state of [[weightlessness]] is a result of the fact that the ISS is in constant free fall, which according to the [[equivalence principle]] is indiscernible from being in a state where all forces, including gravity, are absent. However, due to (1) the drag resulting from the residual atmosphere, (2) vibratory acceleration due to mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS, (3) orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes or thrusters, and (4) the spatial separation from the real [[Center of mass|centre of mass]] of the ISS, the environment on the station is often described as [[microgravity]], with a level of gravity on the order of 2 to 1000 millionths of ''g'' (the value varies with the frequency of the disturbance; the low value occurs at frequencies below 0.1 Hz, the higher value at frequencies of 100 Hz or more).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/users/downloads/userguides/physenv.pdf|title=European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms|accessdate=2006-05-16|format=PDF|publisher=European Space Agency|language=English}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[List of International Space Station visitors]]
* [[List of ISS spacewalks]] performed from the ISS or visiting spacecraft
* [[List of manned spaceflights to the ISS]] for a comprehensive chronological list of all manned spacecraft that have visited the ISS, including the spacecraft's respective crews
* [[List of unmanned spaceflights to the ISS]] &mdash; Progress supply flights and unmanned automatic docking space station modules <!-- Maybe someone can add (make) a list of respective unmanned craft as well? -->
===Other===
* [[Space station]] for statistics of occupied space stations
* [[Soyuz spacecraft]]
* [[Progress spacecraft]]
* [[Mir]]
* [[Salyut]]
* [[Skylab]]
* [[X-38]]
* [[Transhab]]
* [[Kliper]]
* [[Lunar space elevator]]
* [[space flight]] [[flight simulator|simulator]]
* [[Space colonization]]


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
 
==External links==
;Official ISS pages at the participating space agencies' websites:
*[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html International Space Station &mdash; NASA site]
*[http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/default.asp International Space Station &mdash; CSA Site]
*[http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/iss/iss.html International Space Station &mdash; Energia site]
*[http://www.esa.int/esaHS/iss.html International Space Station &mdash; ESA site]
*[http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/iss_human/index_e.html International Space Station &mdash; JAXA site]
*[http://www.aeb.gov.br/conteudo.php?ida=28&idc=118 International Space Station &mdash; AEB site]
*[http://www.asi.it/sito/programmi.htm International Space Station &mdash; ASI site]
 
;Other ISS links:
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/technology/space.timeline/us/iss/index.html CNN page with 3D model]
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/station/index.html NASA Space Station Gallery]
* [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/multimedia/scalemodel/index.html NASA Scale Model Drawing Package]
* [http://exploration.nasa.gov/programs/station/expedition.html ISS Expedition Experiment List] - List of experiments conducted aboard ISS sorted by Expedition No.
* [http://exploration.nasa.gov/programs/station/list.html Experiment List - Alphabetical] - List of experiments conducted aboard ISS sorted by experiment name
* [http://www1.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/td9702.pdf ISS Familiarization and Training Manual - NASA July 1998 (PDF format)]
* [http://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/isstodate.html Current ISS Vital Statistics]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intation.htm International Space Station] from [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]] (out of date)
* [http://esa.heavens-above.com/esa/iss_step1.asp See the ISS from your home town]
* [news:sci.space.station Space Station Newsgroup - sci.space.station]
* [http://www.issfanclub.com ISS Fanclub]
* [http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/170368main_IISTF_Final_Report_508.pdf  ISS safety report]
* [http://www.geocities.com/i_s_s_alpha/dev_canc.htm Detailed list of cancelled components]
*[http://www.space.gs/iss/ International Space Station] Full coverage of all ISS activities, includes all Status Reports issued since January 2003
*[http://www.exploration-space.com/16-apr-2007-nasa.html  04/16/07: Consolidated Launch Manifest: Space Shuttle Flights and ISS Assembly Sequence.]
* [http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/forums/forum-view.asp?fid=8 NASAspaceflight.com ISS forum]

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The ISS insignia.
(PD) Photo: NASA
The ISS on July 19, 2011, photographed from the space shuttle Atlantis.
(PD) Photo: NASA
The ISS, photographed in December 2009 by the STS-129 crew of the Space Shuttle Atlantis shortly after undocking to return to Earth. Visible on the ISS are numerous modules, trusses, and long wing-like solar panels.

The International Space Station (ISS) is a research facility currently in low earth orbit. It is being assembled with international cooperation between the United States of America (NASA), Russia (RKA), Japan (JAXA), Canada (CSA) and several European countries (ESA). The ISS is the largest space station ever assembled, and has been continuously inhabited since November 2, 2000. At present the it has a capacity for a crew of three, which will be expanded to six when construction is complete in 2012. It is planned to remain operational through 2016.

History

As the the Cold War and the space race came to a close the United States approached foreign partners in order to collaborate on an international space station. Announced in 1993, the project was initially called Space Station Alpha.[1] It was designed to combine elements from various planned space stations of the participating space agencies: NASA's Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2, ESA's Columbus, and the Japanese Experiment Module.

The first section, Zarya, was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket. Two further pieces, the Unity Module and Zvezda service module, were added before the first crew arrived on November 2, 2000. It consisted of U.S. astronaut William Shepherd and two Russian cosmonauts, Yuri Gidzenko and Sergei Krikalev. The Destiny Laboratory Module, the most recent pressurized module, was delivered to the station in 2001.

The future of the ISS was uncertain after the Space Shuttle Columbia was destroyed in 2003 and the shuttle program was suspended for two and a half years. During this time crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Beginning with Expedition 7, station crews consisted of only two astronauts. Construction has resumed, but is far behind the original schedule, planned for completion in 2004 or 2005. Modules and other structures have been canceled or replaced and the number of scheduled construction flights were reduced. The schedule called to expand the station crew to six in 2009, and the completion of all construction by 2010.[2] 2012 is the earliest expected completion date.

Components to be launched

By the time the ISS is completed, it will have, in addition to the modules already in orbit:

Components

There is a large unpressurized truss system in place that support the prominent solar arrays, as well as external experiments like the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and the Plasma Contactor Unit [1]. An addition to unpressurized experiment accommodations on ISS is being developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center, called EXPRESS Logistics Carrier, or ELC (formerly EXPRESS Pallet). "EXPRESS" stands for "EXpedite the PRocessing of Experiments to the Space Station". Several ELC units will be installed on the exterior of ISS to provide a home for space science experiments. ELC units provide not just a berth for experiments, but also provide power, heat, and command & telemetry links to experiments.

Cancelled modules

Major ISS Systems

Power supply

The source of electrical power for the ISS is the sun: light is converted into electricity through the use of solar panels. Before assembly flight 4A (shuttle mission STS-97, November 30, 2000) the only power source was the Russian solar panels attached to the Zarya and Zvezda modules: the Russian segment of the station uses 28 volts dc (like the Shuttle). In the rest of the station, electricity is provided by the solar panels attached to the truss at a voltage ranging from 130 to 180 volts dc. The power is then stabilized and distributed at 160 volts dc and then converted to the user-required 124 volts dc. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters, and this feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian Science Power Platform: the Russian segment will depend on the U.S. built solar arrays for power supply.[4]

Using a high-voltage (130 to 160 volts) distribution line in the so-called U.S. part of the station led to smaller power lines and thus weight savings.

Life support

(PD) Photo: Tracy Caldwell Dyson/NASA
Astronaut Tracy Caldwell Dyson in the cupola of the ISS, September 11th, 2010. This section is the station's main observatory.

The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen levels, water, and fire extinguishing, among other things. The Elektron system generates oxygen aboard the station. The highest priority for the life support system is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects processes and stores water and waste used and produced by the crew. For example, the system recycles fluid from the sink, shower, urine, and condensation. Activated charcoal filters are the primary method for removing byproducts of human metabolism from the air. [5]

Attitude control

The attitude (orientation) of the station is maintained by either of two mechanisms. Normally, a system using several control moment gyroscopes (CMGs) keeps the station oriented, i.e. with Destiny forward of Unity, the P truss on the port side and Pirs on the earth-facing (nadir) side. When the CMG system becomes saturated, it can lose its ability to control station attitude. If this happens, the Russian Attitude Control System can take over, using thrusters to maintain station attitude and allowing the CMG system to desaturate. This has happened automatically as a safety measure, as happened for example during Expedition 10.[6] When a shuttle orbiter is docked to the station, it can also be used to maintain station attitude. This procedure was used during STS-117 as the S3/S4 truss was being installed.

© Photo: Thierry Legault, www.astrophoto.fr
Image of the solar transit of the International Space Station and Space Shuttle Atlantis 50 minutes before docking, taken from the area of Madrid (Spain) on May 16th 2010 at 13h 28min 55s UT.

Scientific research

One of the main goals of the ISS is to provide a place to conduct experiments that require one or more of the unusual conditions present on the station. The main fields of research include biology (including biomedical research and biotechnology), physics (including fluid physics, materials science, and quantum physics), astronomy (including cosmology), and meteorology.[7] [8] As of 2007, little experimentation other than the study of the long-term effects of microgravity on humans has taken place. With four new research modules set to arrive at the ISS by 2010, however, more specialized research is expected to begin.

Scientific ISS modules

The Destiny Laboratory Module is the main research facility currently aboard the ISS. Produced by NASA and launched in February 2001, it is a research facility for general experiments.[9] The Columbus module is another research facility, though it was designed by the ESA for the ISS. Its purpose is to facilitate scientific experiments and is set to be launched into space with the STS-122 shuttle launch on December 6, 2007.[10] It should provide a generic laboratory as well as ones specifically designed for biology, biomedical research, and fluid physics. There are also a number of planned expansions that will be implemented to study quantum physics and cosmology. The Japanese Experiment Module, also known as Kibō, is scheduled to be in space after the STS-127 launch in or around January, 2009. It is being developed by JAXA in order to function as an observatory and to measure various astronomical data. The ExPRESS Logistics Carrier, developed by NASA, is set to be launched for the ISS with the STS-129 mission, which is expected to take place no earlier than September 11, 2009.[11] It will allow experiments to be deployed and conducted in the vacuum of space and will provide the necessary electricity and computing to locally process data from experiments. The Multipurpose Laboratory Module, created by the RKA, is expected to launch for the ISS in late 2009. It will supply the proper resources for general microgravity experiments.[12]

A couple of planned research modules have been cancelled, including the Centrifuge Accommodations Module (used to produce varying levels of artificial gravity) and the Russian Research Module (used for general experimentation). Several planned experiments, such as the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, have been cancelled as well.

Areas of research

There are a number of plans to study biology on the ISS. One goal is to improve our understanding of the effect of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects such as muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shifts are studied with the intention to utilize this data so space colonization and lengthy space travel can become feasible. The effect of near-weightlessness on evolution, development and growth, and the internal processes of plants and animals are also studied. In response to recent data suggesting that microgravity enables the growth of three-dimensional human body-like tissues and that unusual protein crystals can be formed in space, NASA has indicated a desire to investigate these phenomena.[7]

NASA would also like to study prominent problems in physics. The physics of fluids in microgravity are not completely understood, and researchers would like to be able to accurately model fluids in the future. Additionally, since fluids in space can be combined nearly completely regardless of their relative weights, there is some interest in investigating the combination of fluids that would not mix well on Earth. By examining reactions that are slowed down by low gravity and temperatures, scientists also hope to gain new insight concerning states of matter (specifically in regards to superconductivity).[7]

Additionally, researchers hope to examine combustion in the presence of less gravity than on Earth. Any findings involving the efficiency of the burning or the creation of byproducts could improve the process of energy production, which would be of economic and environmental interest. Scientists plan to use the ISS to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and oxides in Earth's atmosphere as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, anti-matter, and dark matter in the Universe.[7]

The long-term goals of this research are to develop the technology necessary for human-based space and planetary exploration and colonization (including life support systems, safety precautions, environmental monitoring in space, etc.), new ways to treat diseases, more efficient methods of producing materials, accurate measurements with a precision impossible if done on Earth, a fuller concept of the Universe, and a new understanding from all experiments undertaken.[7] [8]

Major incidents

2003 Columbia disaster

After the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on February 1, 2003, and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS until 2006. Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches, crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with Expedition 7, two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched in contrast to the previously launched crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However Progress transports and the STS-114 shuttle flight took care of this problem.

2006 Smoke problem

On September 18, 2006, the Expedition 13 crew activated a smoke alarm in the Russian segment of the International Space Station when fumes from one of three oxygen generator triggered momentary fear about a possible fire. Flight engineer Jeffrey Williams reported an unusual smell, but officials said there was no fire and the crew was not in any danger.

The crew reported at first smoke in the cabin and a smell. It turns out what was happening was a leak of potassium hydroxide from an oxygen vent. The equipment was turned off. Potassium hydroxide is odorless and the smell reported by Williams more likely was associated with an overheated rubber gasket in the Elektron system.

In any case, the station's ventilation system was shut down to prevent the spread of smoke or contaminants through the rest of the lab complex. A charcoal air filter was put in place to help scrub the atmosphere of any lingering potassium hydroxide fumes. The space station's program manager said the crew never donned gas masks, but as a precaution puts on surgical gloves and masks to prevent contact with any contaminants.[13]

On November 02, 2006 the payload brought by the Russian Progress M-58 allow the crew to repair the Elektron using spare parts.[14]

2007 computer failure

On 14 June 2007 during Expedition 15 and on flight day 7 of STS-117's visit to ISS, a computer malfunction on the Russian segments at 06:30 UTC left the station without thrusters, oxygen generation, carbon dioxide scrubber, and other environmental control systems, which caused temperatures to rise. A successful restart of the computers resulted in a false fire alarm which awakened the crew at 11:43 UTC.[15][16] The two computer systems (command and navigation) are each composed of three computers. Each computer is referred to as a Lane. [16]

By 15 June the primary Russian computers were back online and talking to the US side of the station by bypassing a circuit. Secondary systems were still offline and work would be needed.[17] NASA had options to extend STS-117 if the issues could not be resolved and stated there was an "option to depart" if at least one of the station's stabilizing computers could not be fixed and the three member crew that is currently there, would have to be taken back to Earth aboard Atlantis. Without the computer that controls the oxygen levels, the station had only 56 days of oxygen available.[18]

By the afternoon of 16 June, ISS's program manager Michael Suffredini confirmed that all six computers governing command and navigation systems, including two thought to have failed, for Russian segments of the station were back online and will be tested within the next day or two. The cooling system was the first system brought back online. NASA believes the overcurrent protection circuits designed to safeguard each computer from power spikes were at fault and that the leading theory is that they were tripped due to increased interference, or "noise," from the station's plasma environment related to the addition of massive new starboard trusses and solar arrays.[16] Analysis of the failure continues for both the Station itself and by ESA for the Columbus Laboratory Module and the Automated Transfer Vehicle, which use the same computer systems that were supplied by EADS Astrium Space Transportation.[19] According to NASA's Michael Suffredini, evidence suggests the plasma field shifted when the station's shape changed with the addition of the new truss segment and that "As the station gets bigger, this potential will continue to grow" and that "the Russians have noted some changes in their systems as we have grown."[19]

Visiting spacecraft

Planned

  • European (ESA) Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft (scheduled for January 2008)[20]
  • Japanese (JAXA) H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) resupply vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2009)
  • Orion possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (officially scheduled for 2014)

Proposed

Expeditions

The ISS in its formation as of mid 2007. Photo made on June, 2007. Credits: STS-117 Crew, NASA

All permanent station crews are named "Expedition N", where N is sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions (aka Increments) have an average duration of half a year.

The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of September 11, 2006, it has had 159 (non-distinct) visitors. Mir had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See Space station). The number of distinct visitors of the ISS is 124 (see list of International Space Station visitors).

Legal aspects

Agreement

The legal structure that regulates the space station is multi-layered. The primary layer establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an international treaty signed on January 28, 1998 by fifteen governments involved in the Space Station project. The ISS consists of the United States, Canada, Japan, the Russian Federation, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Article 1 outlines its purpose:

This Agreement is a long term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilisation of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.[21]

The IGA sets the stage for a second layer of agreements between the partners referred to as 'Memoranda of Understanding' (MOUs), of which four exist between NASA and each of the four other partners. There are no MOUs between ESA, Roskosmos, CSA and JAXA due to the fact that NASA is the designated manager of the ISS. The MOUs are used to describe the roles and responsibilities of the partners in more detail.

A third layer consists of bartered contractual agreements or the trading of the partners' rights and duties, including the 2005 commercial framework agreement between NASA and Roskosmos that sets forth the terms and conditions under which NASA purchases seats on Soyuz crew transporters and cargo capacity on unmanned Progress transporters.

A fourth legal layer of agreements implements and supplements the four MOUs further. Notably among them is the ISS code of conduct, setting out criminal jurisdiction, anti-harassment and certain other behavior rules for ISS crewmembers.[22]

Utilization

There is no fixed percentage of ownership for the whole space station. Rather Article 5 of the IGA sets forth that each partner shall retain jurisdiction and control over the elements it registers and over personnel in or on the Space Station who are its nationals.[21] Therefore, for each ISS module only one partner retains sole ownership. Still, the agreements to use the space station facilities are more complex.

The three planned Russian segments Zvezda, the Multipurpose Laboratory Module and the Russian Research Modules are made and owned by Russia, which, as of today, also retains its current and prospective usage (Zarya, although constructed and launched by Russia, has been paid for and is officially owned by NASA). In order to use the Russian parts of the station, the partners use bilateral agreements (third and fourth layer of the above outlined legal structure). The rest of the station, (the U.S., the European and Japanese pressurized modules as well as the truss and solar panel structure and the two robotic arms) has been agreed to be utilized as follows (% refers to time that each structure may be used by each partner):

  1. Columbus: 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA and CSA (CSA has agreed with NASA to use 2.3% of all non-Russian ISS structure)
  2. Kibo: 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA and CSA (2.3%)
  3. Destiny Lab: 100% for NASA and CSA (2.3%) as well as 100% of the truss payload accommodation
  4. Crew time and power from the solar panel structure, as well as rights to purchase supporting services (upload/download and communication services) 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA

Costs

The ISS has been, as of today, far more expensive than originally anticipated. The ESA estimates the overall cost from the start of the project in the late 1980s to the prospective end in 2010 to be in the region of $130 billion (€100 billion).[23]

Giving a precise cost estimate for the ISS is, however, not straightforward; it is, for instance, hard to determine which costs should actually be contributed to the ISS program or how the Russian contribution should be measured, as the Russian space agency runs at considerably lower USD costs than the other partners.

Criticism

The ISS and NASA have been the targets of varied criticism over the years. Critics believe that the time and money spent on the ISS could be better spent on other projects -- whether they be robotic spacecraft missions, space exploration, investigations of problems here on Earth, or just tax savings. [24][25] Some critics, like Bob Park, argue that very little scientific research was convincingly planned for the ISS in the first place.[26] They also argue that the primary feature of a space-based laboratory is its microgravity environment, which can usually be more-cheaply studied with a vomit comet -- that is, an aircraft which flies in parabolic arcs.[27] Two of the most ambitious ISS projects to date -- the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and the Centrifuge Accommodations Module, have both been cancelled due to the prohibitive costs NASA faces in simply completing the ISS. As a result, the research done on the ISS is generally limited to experiments which don't have a specialized apparatus. For example, in the first half of 2007, ISS research dealt primarily with human biological responses to being in space, covering topics like kidney stones[2], circadian rhythm[3], and the effects of cosmic rays on the nervous system[4]. Critics tend to believe that this sort of research is of little pragmatic value, since space exploration is today almost universally done by robots.

Other critics have attacked the ISS on some technical design grounds:

  1. Jeff Foust argued that the ISS requires too much maintenance, especially by risky, expensive EVAs;[28]
  2. The Astronomical Society of the Pacific has mentioned that its orbit is rather highly inclined, which makes Russian launches cheaper, but US launches more expensive.[29] This was intended as a design point, to encourage Russian involvement with the ISS -- and Russian involvement saved the project from abandonment in the wake of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster -- but the choice may have increased the costs of completing the ISS substantially.

In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. Jerome Schnee estimates that the indirect economic return from spin-offs of human space exploration has been many times the initial public investment.[30] However, this can be a rather contentious point: a review of the claims by the Federation of American Scientists argued that NASA's rate of return from spinoffs is actually very low, except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.[31]

Critics also say that NASA is often casually credited with "spin-offs" (such as Velcro and portable computers) that were developed independently for other reasons.[32] NASA maintains a list of spin-offs from the construction of the ISS, as well as from work performed on the ISS.[33] However, NASA's official list is much narrower and more arcane than dramatic narratives of billions of dollars of spin-offs.

It is therefore debatable whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor to society. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value (or lack thereof), it is an important example of international cooperation.[34] Others claim that the ISS is an asset that, if properly leveraged, could allow more economical manned Lunar and Mars missions.[35] Either way, advocates argue that it misses the point to expect a hard financial return from the ISS; rather, it is intended as part of a general expansion of spaceflight capabilities.

Sightings

Due to the size of the International Space Station, and particularly the large reflective area offered by its solar panels, ground based observation of the station is possible with the naked eye; indeed, it is one of the brightest naked-eye objects in the sky on such occasions. Since the station is in low earth orbit, and the sun angle and observer locations also need to coincide, it is only visible for brief periods of time.

NASA provides data on forthcoming opportunities for viewing the ISS (and other objects) via their Sightings web page, and so does the European Space Agency [5].

Miscellaneous

Space tourism and weddings

As of 2007 there have been five space tourists to the ISS, each spending around US$25 million; they all went there aboard Russian supply missions. There has also been a space wedding when cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko on the station married Ekaterina Dmitrieva, who was in Texas.

Golf Shot Around The World was an event in which, on an EVA, a special golf ball, equipped with a tracking device, was hit from the station and sent into its own low Earth orbit for a fee paid by a Canadian golf equipment manufacturer to the Russian Space Agency. The task was supposed to be performed on Expedition 13, but the event was postponed, and took place on Expedition 14.[36][37]

Microgravity

At the ISS altitude, the gravity from the Earth is still 88% of that at sea level. The state of weightlessness is a result of the fact that the ISS is in constant free fall, which according to the equivalence principle is indiscernible from being in a state where all forces, including gravity, are absent. However, due to (1) the drag resulting from the residual atmosphere, (2) vibratory acceleration due to mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS, (3) orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes or thrusters, and (4) the spatial separation from the real centre of mass of the ISS, the environment on the station is often described as microgravity, with a level of gravity on the order of 2 to 1000 millionths of g (the value varies with the frequency of the disturbance; the low value occurs at frequencies below 0.1 Hz, the higher value at frequencies of 100 Hz or more).[38]

References

  1. ↑ GAO (June 1994). Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research (PDF). GAO. Retrieved on 2006-11-03.
  2. ↑ flightglobal.com NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station. International Space Station. FlightGlobal (3 March 2006). Retrieved on 16 September, 2006.
  3. ↑ With the cancellation of the Habitations Module, sleeping places are now spread throughout the station. There will be three in the Russian segment once the ISS is completed and three in the US segment. It is however not necessary to have a separate 'bunk' in space at all, many visitors just strap their sleeping bag to the wall of a module, get into it and sleep.
  4. ↑ Boeing: Integrated Defense Systems - NASA Systems - International Space Station - Solar Power (English). Boeing. Retrieved on 2006-06-05.
  5. ↑ Breathing Easy on the Space Station science.nasa.gov, 13 November 2000. Retrieved 3 January 2007.
  6. ↑ International Space Station Status Report #05-7. NASA (Feb. 11, 2005).
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Fields of Research. NASA (June 26, 2007).
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Getting on Board. NASA (June 26, 2007).
  9. ↑ NASA - U.S. Destiny Laboratory. NASA (March 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-26.
  10. ↑ NASA - STS-122. NASA (June 26, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-26.
  11. ↑ Unofficial Space Shuttle Manifest. Small World Communications (June 25, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-26.
  12. ↑ KHRUNICHEV STATE RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION SPACE CENTRE. Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center (2006). Retrieved on 2007-06-26.
  13. ↑ Oxygen Generator Problem Triggers Station Alarm. Spaceflight Now.
  14. ↑ Oxygen Regeneration Restored At ISS. Space Travel.
  15. ↑ STS-117 MCC Status Report #12. NASA.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 More Progress Made to Recover Space Station Computers, Space.com, Tariq Malik, posted: 16 June 2007 6:47 p.m. ET
  17. ↑ STS-117 MCC Status Report #15. NASA.
  18. ↑ Wikinews:Shuttle mission may be extended further due to ISS computer failure, oldid=44437, 01:29, 16 June 2007
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 ISS computer woes concern Europe, Irene Klotz, BBC, Last Updated: Monday, 18 June 2007, 10:29 GMT 11:29 UK
  20. ↑ First ATV leaves Europe to prepare for launch from Europe’s Spaceport in French Guiana. European Space Agency (June 15, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-15.
  21. ↑ Farand, Andre. Astronauts’ behaviour onboard the International Space Station: regulatory framework (pdf). International Space Station. UNESCO. Retrieved on 16 September, 2006.
  22. ↑ How Much Does It Cost?. International Space Station. European Space Agency (9 August 2005). Retrieved on 18 July, 2006.
  23. ↑ A waste of space, Mail & Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  24. ↑ A "Station" in Space and NASA's Deceptions on Earth. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  25. ↑ Park, Bob. Space Station: Maybe They Could Use It to Test Missile Defense. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  26. ↑ Park, Bob. Space: International Space Station Unfurls New Solar Panels. Retrieved on 2007-06-15.
  27. ↑ The trouble with space stations Jeff Foust, The Space Review, 12 September 2005. Retrieved 10 September 2006.
  28. ↑ Up, Up, and Away www.astrosociety.org. Retrieved 10 September 2006.
  29. ↑ Jerome Schnee. The Economic Impacts of the U.S. Space Program. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  30. ↑ NASA Technological Spinoff Fables www.fas.org. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  31. ↑ Park, Robert. The Virtual Astronaut, The New Atlantis. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
  32. ↑ NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI). International Space Station Spinoffs (English) (HTML). NASA. Retrieved on 2006-09-14.
  33. ↑ International Space Station: Human Residency Third Anniversary Space Today Online, 2003. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  34. ↑ Interview with Niolai Sevostianov, President, RSC Energia: The mission to Mars is to be international MarsToday.com, 2005-12-11. Retrieved 2007-01-16.
  35. ↑ http://www.e21golf.com/
  36. ↑ http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1093
  37. ↑ European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms (English) (PDF). European Space Agency. Retrieved on 2006-05-16.
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