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| == '''[[Iraq War, major combat phase]]''' ==
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| After a buildup by [[special operations]] forces and an intensification of air attacks under the [[Operation NORTHERN WATCH]] and [[Operation SOUTHERN WATCH]] "no fly" programs, major ground forces began to move into Iraq on March 20, 2003.
| | ==Footnotes== |
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| As with any war, no plan survives contact with the enemy. Both sides did consider Baghdad the key [[centers of gravity (military)|center of gravity]], but both made incorrect assumptions about the enemy's plans. The U.S. was still sensitive over the casualties taken by a too-light raid in [[Operation GOTHIC SERPENT]] in [[Mogadishu]], [[Somalia]]. As a result, the initial concept of operations was to surround Baghdad with tanks, while airborne and air assault infantry cleared it block-by-block. <ref name=Zucchino>{{citation
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| | author = David Zucchino
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| | title = Thunder Run: the Armored Strike to Capture Baghdad
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| | publisher = Atlantic Monthly Press | year = 2004 | ISBN = 0871139111}}, p. 3</ref>
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| The U.S. also expected the more determined Iraqi forces, such as the [[Special Republican Guard]] and the [[Saddam Fedayeen]], to stay in the cities and fight from cover. Before the invasion, the Fedayeen were seen as [[Uday Hussein]]'s personal paramilitary force, founded in the mid-1990s. They had become known in 2000 and 2001, beheading dissenting women in the streets claiming they were prostitutes. "It was a very new phenomenon, the first time women in Iraq have been beheaded in public," Muhannad Eshaiker of the California-based Iraqi Forum for Democracy told ABC. <ref name=ABC>{{citation
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| | title = Who Are Saddam's 'Fedayeen' Fighters? A Look at Iraq’s Brutal Paramilitary Group, the Fedayeen Saddam
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| | author = Leela Jacinto
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| | date = 24 March 2003 | url = http://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=79602&page=1
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| | journal = ABC News}}</ref> They had not been expected to be a force in battle. It was clear that the fedayeen had minimal military training. They seemed unaware of the lethality of the U.S. armored vehicles, and aggressively but haphazardly attacked them. <ref>Zucchino, pp. 14-15</ref> Senior Iraqi Army officers seemed to believe their own propaganda and assume that the war would go well, and there would never be tanks in Baghdad. It was only Special Republican Guard, Saddam Fedayeen, and unexpected Syrian mercenaries that seemed to understand the reality.<ref>Zucchino, pp. 35-36</ref> In an interview after the end of high-intensity combat, MG [[Buford Blount]], commander of the [[3rd Infantry Division]], said "...there were many, I think, Syrian and other countries that had sent personnel; the countries didn't, I think individuals came over on their own that were recruited and paid for by the Ba'ath Party to come over and fight the Americans. We dealt with those individuals there for a two- or three-day period, had a lot of contact with them, but have not seen a reoccurrence of that at this point."<ref name=DLink2003-05-15>{{citation
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| | journal = Defenselink
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| | author - Army Maj. Gen. Buford C. Blount III | date= May 15, 2003
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| | title = 3rd Infantry Division Commander Live Briefing from Iraq
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| | url = http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2608}}</ref>
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| ''[[Iraq War, major combat phase|.... (read more)]]''
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| ! style="text-align: center;" | [[Iraq War, major combat phase#References|notes]]
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The Mathare Valley slum near Nairobi, Kenya, in 2009.
Poverty is deprivation based on lack of material resources. The concept is value-based and political. Hence its definition, causes and remedies (and the possibility of remedies) are highly contentious.[1] The word poverty may also be used figuratively to indicate a lack, instead of material goods or money, of any kind of quality, as in a poverty of imagination.
Definitions
Primary and secondary poverty
The use of the terms primary and secondary poverty dates back to Seebohm Rowntree, who conducted the second British survey to calculate the extent of poverty. This was carried out in York and was published in 1899. He defined primary poverty as having insufficient income to “obtain the minimum necessaries for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency”. In secondary poverty, the income “would be sufficient for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency were it not that some portion of it is absorbed by some other expenditure.” Even with these rigorous criteria he found that 9.9% of the population was in primary poverty and a further 17.9% in secondary.[2]
Absolute and comparative poverty
More recent definitions tend to use the terms absolute and comparative poverty. Absolute is in line with Rowntree's primary poverty, but comparative poverty is usually expressed in terms of ability to play a part in the society in which a person lives. Comparative poverty will thus vary from one country to another.[3] The difficulty of definition is illustrated by the fact that a recession can actually reduce "poverty".
Causes of poverty
The causes of poverty most often considered are:
- Character defects
- An established “culture of poverty”, with low expectations handed down from one generation to another
- Unemployment
- Irregular employment, and/or low pay
- Position in the life cycle (see below) and household size
- Disability
- Structural inequality, both within countries and between countries. (R H Tawney: “What thoughtful rich people call the problem of poverty, thoughtful poor people call with equal justice a problem of riches”)[4]
As noted above, most of these, or the extent to which they can be, or should be changed, are matters of heated controversy.
- ↑ Alcock, P. Understanding poverty. Macmillan. 1997. ch 1.
- ↑ Harris, B. The origins of the British welfare state. Palgrave Macmillan. 2004. Also, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
- ↑ Alcock, Pt II
- ↑ Alcock, Preface to 1st edition and pt III.
