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== '''[[Reuben sandwich]]''' ==
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''by [[User:Hayford Peirce|Hayford Peirce]], [[User:Peter Schmitt|Peter Schmitt]] and [[User:Mary Ash|Mary Ash]] <small>(and [[User:Howard C. Berkowitz|Howard C. Berkowitz]])</small>''
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==Footnotes==
{{Image|Ruben sandwich.jpg|right|200px|Reuben sandwich}}
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A '''[[Reuben sandwich]]''' is usually made with [[rye]] bread, [[corned beef]], [[sauerkraut]], [[Swiss cheese]], and [[Russian dressing]] [[or Thousand Island dressing]], and is griddled, grilled, or fried and served hot. The corned beef is sometimes replaced with [[pastrami]] or thinly sliced [[ham]]; the sauerkraut is sometimes replaced with [[cole slaw]]; and sometimes the bread is toasted. In these, and similar cases, the [[sandwich]] is then frequently called a Rachel. Although generally served hot, it can also be served cold.
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The Reuben sandwich is part of American food folklore and is often associated with Jewish food traditions even though all its variants combine meat with cheese and therefore are not [[kosher]].
 
=== Origin ===
 
Conflicting stories exist about the origin of the sandwich.  The two main competing ones&mdash;both involving immigrants with Jewish roots&mdash;are:
 
*The Reuben sandwich was named for Arnold Reuben, who, in the early part of the 20th century, owned the now-closed Reuben's delicatessen in New York.  Reuben reportedly created the sandwich to honor Annette Seelos, an actress, in 1914.
 
*Alternatively, the sandwich was created by Reuben Kay, a Omaha, Nebraska, grocer, who made the sandwich during the course of a poker game. His sandwich then won a national contest the following year.
 
In order to clarify the [[etymology]] of ''Reuben sandwich'' for the ''Random House College Dictionary'', which cited New York City as its origin, Jim Rader thoroughly researched the two claims after a 1989 complaint by a Nebraskan reader but without arriving at a definite answer.
''[[Reuben sandwich|.... (read more)]]''

Latest revision as of 09:19, 11 September 2020

The Mathare Valley slum near Nairobi, Kenya, in 2009.

Poverty is deprivation based on lack of material resources. The concept is value-based and political. Hence its definition, causes and remedies (and the possibility of remedies) are highly contentious.[1] The word poverty may also be used figuratively to indicate a lack, instead of material goods or money, of any kind of quality, as in a poverty of imagination.

Definitions

Primary and secondary poverty

The use of the terms primary and secondary poverty dates back to Seebohm Rowntree, who conducted the second British survey to calculate the extent of poverty. This was carried out in York and was published in 1899. He defined primary poverty as having insufficient income to “obtain the minimum necessaries for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency”. In secondary poverty, the income “would be sufficient for the maintenance of merely physical efficiency were it not that some portion of it is absorbed by some other expenditure.” Even with these rigorous criteria he found that 9.9% of the population was in primary poverty and a further 17.9% in secondary.[2]

Absolute and comparative poverty

More recent definitions tend to use the terms absolute and comparative poverty. Absolute is in line with Rowntree's primary poverty, but comparative poverty is usually expressed in terms of ability to play a part in the society in which a person lives. Comparative poverty will thus vary from one country to another.[3] The difficulty of definition is illustrated by the fact that a recession can actually reduce "poverty".

Causes of poverty

The causes of poverty most often considered are:

  • Character defects
  • An established “culture of poverty”, with low expectations handed down from one generation to another
  • Unemployment
  • Irregular employment, and/or low pay
  • Position in the life cycle (see below) and household size
  • Disability
  • Structural inequality, both within countries and between countries. (R H Tawney: “What thoughtful rich people call the problem of poverty, thoughtful poor people call with equal justice a problem of riches”)[4]

As noted above, most of these, or the extent to which they can be, or should be changed, are matters of heated controversy.

Footnotes
  1. ↑ Alcock, P. Understanding poverty. Macmillan. 1997. ch 1.
  2. ↑ Harris, B. The origins of the British welfare state. Palgrave Macmillan. 2004. Also, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
  3. ↑ Alcock, Pt II
  4. ↑ Alcock, Preface to 1st edition and pt III.

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