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{{Image|Los Angeles Smog.JPG|right|325px|Poor air quality over Los Angles (August, 2003)}}
{{See also|National Ambient Air Quality Standards}}


The '''Clean Air Act''' is a law enacted by the [[U.S. Congress]] that defines the responsibilities of the [[U.S. Environmental Protection Agency]] (U.S. EPA) for protecting and improving the nation's [[Air Quality Index|air quality]] and the [[Stratosphere|stratospheric ozone layer]]. The latest major amendments were enacted as the '''Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990''' (Public Law 101–549).
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 were preceded by various other pieces of legislation enacted by the U.S.  Congress dating back to the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955.
<br/><br/>


==Implementation of the Act==


In the same year that Congress created the [[Clean Air Act of 1970]] (see History section below), Congress also created the U.S. EPA and gave it the primary role in carrying out the law. Since 1970, the U.S. EPA has been responsible for a variety of programs to reduce [[air pollution]] nationwide.


However, the environmental regulatory agencies of the states, [[Indian tribes]] and local governments do a lot of the work to meet the Act's requirements. Those agencies work with industrial and commercial companies to reduce air pollution. They also review and approve permit applications for construction and operation of industrial plants and commercial facilities involving sources of air pollution. They are able to develop solutions for pollution problems that require special understanding of local industries, geography, housing, and travel patterns, as well as other factors. State, local, and tribal governments also monitor air quality, inspect facilities under their jurisdictions and enforce Clean Air Act regulations.<ref name=Understand>[http://www.epa.gov/air/peg/understand.html Understanding the Clean Air Act] (From the U.S. EPA website)</ref>
The following is a partial list of the major commercial petrochemicals and their derivatives:


States must also develop State Implementation Plans (SIPs) that outline how each state will control air pollution under the Clean Air Act. An SIP is a collection of the regulations, programs and policies that a state will use to clean up polluted areas. In developing their SIPs, the states must involve the public and industries through hearings and opportunities to comment on the development of each state plan.<ref name=Understand/>
* [[ethylene]] - the simplest olefin; used as a ripening hormone, a monomer and a chemical feedstock
 
** [[polyethylene]]s - [[Polymerization|polymerized]] ethylene
==Contents of the Act==
**[[ethanol]] - made by [[hydration]] ([[chemical reaction]] adding [[water]]) of ethylene
 
** [[ethylene oxide]] - sometimes called oxirane; can be made by [[oxidation]] of ethylene
Legislation enacted by the U.S. Congress since 1990 has made several minor changes in the Act. The current version, including amendments through February 24, 2004, is available on the Internet.<ref>[http://epw.senate.gov/envlaws/cleanair.pdf The Clean Air Act (As Amended Through P.L. 108–201, February 24, 2004)]</ref> This is a listing of its major parts:
*** [[ethylene glycol]] - from hydration of ethylene oxide or oxidation of ethylene 
 
**** [[antifreeze (coolant)|engine coolant]] - contains [[ethylene glycol]] 
*Title I - Air Pollution Prevention and Control
**** [[polyester]]s - any of several polymers with ester linkages in the backbone chain
**Part A - Air Quality and Emission Limitations (CAA § 101-131; USC § 7401-7431 )
*** [[glycol ether]]s - from condensation of glycols 
**Part B - Ozone Protection (replaced by Title VI)
*** [[ethoxylates]]
**Part C - Prevention of Significant Deterioration of Air Quality (CAA § 160-169b; USC § 7470-7492)
** [[vinyl acetate]]
**Part D - Plan Requirements for Nonattainment Areas (CAA § 171-193; USC § 7501-7515)
** [[1,2-Dichloroethane|1,2-dichloroethane]]
*Title II - Emission Standards for Moving Sources
*** [[trichloroethylene]]
**Part A - Motor Vehicle Emission and Fuel Standards (CAA § 201-219; USC § 7521-7554)
*** [[tetrachloroethylene]] - also called perchloroethylene; used as a dry cleaning solvent and degreaser 
**Part B - Aircraft Emission Standards (CAA § 231-234; USC § 7571-7574)
*** [[vinyl chloride]] - monomer for [[polyvinyl chloride]]
**Part C - Clean Fuel Vehicles (CAA § 241-250; USC § 7581-7590)
**** [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC) - type of plastic used for piping, tubing, other things
*Title III - General (CAA § 301-328; USC § 7601-7627)
* [[propylene]] - used as a monomer and a chemical feedstock 
*Title IV - Acid Deposition Control (CAA § 401-416; USC § 7651-7651o)
** [[isopropyl alcohol]] - 2-propanol; often used as a solvent or rubbing alcohol 
*Title V - Permits (CAA § 501-507; USC § 7661-7661f )
** [[acrylonitrile]] - useful as a monomer in forming [[Orlon]], [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]] 
*Title VI - Stratospheric Ozone Protection (CAA § 601-618; USC § 7671-7671q )
** [[polypropylene]] - [[Polymerization|polymerized]] propylene 
 
** [[propylene oxide]]
==Key elements of the act==
*** [[propylene glycol]] - sometimes used in engine coolant 
 
*** [[glycol ether]]s - from condensation of glycols 
The U.S. EPA's mission is to protect human health and the [[Natural environment|environment]]. To achieve this mission, EPA implemented a variety of programs under the Clean Air Act that focus on:
** [[acrylic acid]]
 
*** [[acrylic polymer]]s
* Reducing outdoor ambient concentrations of air pollutants that cause [[smog]], [[haze]], [[acid rain]], and other problems
** [[allyl chloride]] -
* Reducing emissions of toxic air pollutants that are known to, or are suspected of, causing cancer or other serious health effects
*** [[epichlorohydrin]] - chloro-oxirane; used in epoxy resin formation 
* Phasing out production and use of chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone.
**** [[epoxy resin]]s - a type of polymerizing glue from bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin, and some [[amine]]
 
* C4 hydrocarbons - a mixture consisting of butanes, butylenes and butadienes
The above programs have required the development of specific regulations by the U.S. EPA and the state, tribal and local governments to limit the emissions of air pollutants from [[Air pollution dispersion terminology|mobile sources]] (like automotive vehicles and airplanes) and [[Air pollution dispersion terminology|stationary sources]] (like [[Petroleum refining processes|petroleum refineries]], [[petrochemical]] and [[chemical]] manufacturing plants, [[power plant]]s, and gas or petrol  stations).
** [[isomers of butylene]] - useful as monomers or co-monomers 
 
*** isobutylene - feed for making [[Methyl tert-butyl ether|methyl ''tert''-butyl ether]] (MTBE) or monomer for copolymerization with a low percentage of [[isoprene]] to make [[butyl rubber]]
More specifics concerning each of the above programs are available on the Internet.<ref name=KeyElements>[http://www.epa.gov/air/peg/elements.html Key Elements of the Clean Air Act] (From the U.S. EPA website)</ref>
** [[1,3-butadiene]] - a [[diene]] often used as a monomer or co-monomer for polymerization to elastomers such as [[polybutadiene]] or a plastic such as [[acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene]] (ABS)
 
*** [[synthetic rubber]]s - synthetic elastomers made of any one or more of several petrochemical (usually) monomers such as 1,3-butadiene, styrene, isobutylene, isoprene, chloroprene; elastomeric polymers are often made with a high percentage of conjugated diene monomers such as 1,3-butadiene, isoprene, or chloroprene
==What the Clean Air Act has accomplished==
* [[higher olefins]]
 
** [[polyolefin]]s such poly-alpha-olefins which are used as lubricants
The implementation of the Clean Air Act has accomplished very significant reductions in the emission of air pollutants during the period of 1970 – 2008. The reductions were accomplished despite even larger increases in activities, during that same period, that produce air pollutants as measured by the national [[Gross Domestic Product]] (GDP), consumption of energy, and usage of automobiles. The details of that accomplishment are presented in the two tables below:<ref name=Understand/><ref name=Part_1>[http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/Part1.pdf Air Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow] (Part 1, prepared for the U.S. EPA by John Bachmann, 2008)</ref>
** [[alpha-olefin]]s - used as monomers, co-monomers, and other chemical precursors. For example, a small amount of 1-hexene can be copolymerized with ethylene into a more flexible form of polyethylene.
 
** other higher olefins
 
** [[detergent alcohol]]s
{| border="0" align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"
* [[benzene]] - the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon
|
** [[ethylbenzene]] - made from benzene and ethylene 
{| class = "wikitable"
*** [[styrene]] made by dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene; used as a monomer 
|+ Air pollutant emission reductions<br/>(1970 – 2008)
**** [[polystyrene]]s - polymers with styrene as a monomer
! Pollutant Emissions|| Reductions
** [[cumene]] - isopropylbenzene; a feedstock in the [[cumene process]] 
|- align="center"
*** [[phenol]] - hydroxybenzene; of dassdcten made by the cumene process
| [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards|Criteria air pollutants]] || More than 50%
*** [[acetone]] - dimethyl ketone; also often made by the cumene process 
|- align="center"
*** [[bisphenol A]] - a type of "double" phenol used in polymerization in epoxy resins and making a common type of polycarbonate 
| [[Toxic air pollutants]]|| Nearly 70%
**** [[epoxy resin]]s - a type of polymerizing glue from bisphenol A, epichlorohydrin, and some [[amine]] 
|- align="center"
**** [[polycarbonate]] - a plastic polymer made from bisphenol A and [[phosgene]] (carbonyl dichloride)
| Automobile emissions|| More than 90%
*** [[solvents]] - liquids used for dissolving materials; examples often made from petrochemicals include ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, acetone, benzene, toluene, xylenes 
|}
** [[cyclohexane]] - a 6-carbon aliphatic cyclic hydrocarbon sometimes used as a non-polar solvent 
|
*** [[adipic acid]] - a 6-carbon di[[carboxylic acid]] which can be a precursor used as a co-monomer together with a di[[amine]] to form an alternating copolymer form of nylon.
{|
**** [[nylon]]s - types of [[polyamide]]s, some are alternating copolymers formed from copolymerizing dicarboxylic acid or derivatives with diamines 
|-
*** [[caprolactam]] - a 6-carbon cyclic [[amide]] 
| &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
**** [[nylons]] - types of [[polyamide]]s, some are from polymerizing caprolactam 
|}
** [[nitrobenzene]] - can be made by single nitration of benzene 
|
*** [[aniline]] - aminobenzene 
{| class = "wikitable"
**** [[methylene diphenyl diisocyanate]] (MDI) - used as a co-monomer with [[diol]]s or polyols to form polyurethanes or with di- or poly[[amine]]s to form [[polyurea]]s 
|+ Activities that produce air pollutants<br/>(1970 – 2008)
***** [[polyurethane]]s
! Factors|| Increases
** [[alkylbenzene]] - a general type of aromatic hydrocarbon which can be used as a presursor for a [[sulfonate]] [[surfactant]] (detergent)
|- align="center"
*** [[detergent]]s - often include [[surfactant]]s types such as alkylbenzenesulfonates and nonylphenol ethoxylates 
| Gross Domestic Product|| 200 %
** [[chlorobenzene]]
|- align="center"
* [[toluene]] - methylbenzene; can be a solvent or precursor for other chemicals   
| Energy consumption || 50%
** [[benzene]]
|- align="center"
** [[toluene diisocyanate]] (TDI) - used as co-monomers with [[diol]]s or polyols to form polyurethanes or with di- or poly[[amine]]s to form [[polyurea]]s 
| Automobile usage || Almost 200%
*** [[polyurethane]]s - a polymer formed from diisocyanates and diols or polyols 
|}
** [[benzoic acid]] - carboxybenzene 
|}
*** [[caprolactam]]
 
**** [[nylon]]
==History==
* [[xylene|mixed xylenes]] - any of three dimethylbenzene isomers, could be a solvent but more often precursor chemicals 
 
** ''ortho''-[[xylene]] - both [[methyl group]]s can be oxidized to form (''ortho-'')phthalic acid 
In October 1948, a cloud of air pollution formed above the industrial town of Donora, Pennsylvania and lingered for five days. It caused sickness in 6,000 of the town's 14,000 people and the death of 20 people. Four years later, in 1952, over 3,000 people died in what became known as London's "Killer Fog".<ref name=Understand/><ref name=Part_1/>
*** [[phthalic anhydride]]
Events like those led to the enactment of several federal and state laws which established funding for the study and the cleanup of air pollution. But there was no comprehensive federal response to address air pollution until Congress passed the Clean Air Act in 1970 and created the U.S. EPA.
** ''para''-[[xylene]] - both methyl groups can be oxidized to form terephthalic acid 
 
*** [[dimethyl terephthalate]] - can be copolymerized to form certain polyesters 
In 1990, Congress amended and greatly expanded the Clean Air Act, providing EPA even broader authority to implement and enforce regulations reducing air pollutant emissions. The 1990 Amendments also placed an increased emphasis on more cost-effective approaches to reduce air pollution.
**** [[polyester]]s - although there can be many types, [[polyethylene terephthalate]] is made from petrochemical products and is very widely used.
 
*** purified [[terephthalic acid]] - often copolymerized to form [[polyethylene terephthalate]]
The principal milestones in the evolution of the Clean Air Act are:<ref name=Part_1/><ref> [http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/Part2.pdf Air Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow] (Part 2, prepared for the U.S. EPA by John Bachmann, 2008)</ref><ref>[http://www.epa.gov/air/caa/caa_history.html History of the Clean Air Act] (From the U.S. EPA website)</ref>
**** [[polyester]]s
 
===The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955===
 
The Air Pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first federal legislation that involved air pollution. It funded research of air pollution and state assistance resources.
 
===Clean Air Act of 1963===
 
The Clean Air Act of 1963 was the first federal legislation regarding air pollution ''control''. It established a federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service and authorized research into techniques for monitoring and controlling air pollution. It included grants to the states for developing state and local air pollution control programs.
 
In 1966, the Clean Air Act was extended to add the authority for grants to maintain state and local programs rather than just develop them.
 
===Air Quality Act of 1967 ===
 
In 1967, an Air Quality Act was enacted in order to expand federal government activities. In accordance with this law, enforcement proceedings were initiated in areas subject to interstate air pollution transport. As part of these proceedings, the federal government for the first time conducted extensive ambient monitoring studies and stationary source inspections.  
 
The Air Quality Act of 1967 also authorized expanded studies of air pollutant emission inventories, ambient monitoring techniques, and control techniques.
 
===Clean Air Act 1970===
 
The enactment of the Clean Air Act of 1970 constituted a major change of the federal government's role in air pollution control. It authorized the development of comprehensive federal and state regulations to limit emissions from stationary industrial sources and from mobile sources.
 
Four major regulatory programs involving stationary sources were initiated:
 
* Establishment of [[National Ambient Air Quality Standards]] (NAAQS)
* Establishment of [[State Implementation Plans]] (SIPs) to achieve the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
* Establishment of [[ New Source Performance Standards]] (NSPS) for new and modified stationary sources
* Establishment of [[ National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants]] (NESHAPs)
 
It also authorized requirements for the control of automotive vehicle emissions (i.e., mobile sources). Furthermore, the authority to enforce air quality standards and air pollution emission controls was substantially expanded.
 
As mentioned above, the EPA was created at about the same time in order to implement the various requirements included in the Clean Air Act of 1970.
 
===1977 Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970===
 
The 1977 Amendments established major review requirements to ensure the attainment and maintenance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
 
It codified provisions for the [[Prevention of Significant Deterioration]] (PSD) program. It also codified requirements pertaining to air pollution sources in geographical areas called "non-attainment areas" because they had not attained on or more of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
 
===1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act of 1970===
 
Another set of major amendments to the Clean Air Act were enacted in 1990 that substantially increased the authority and responsibility of the federal government. New regulatory programs were authorized for:
 
* Control of acid deposition ([[acid rain]])
* Established the requirements for stationary source operating permits
* Established a program to control 189 toxic air pollutants, including those previously regulated by the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS)
 
The provisions for attainment and maintenance of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards were significantly modified and expanded. Other revisions involved stratospheric ozone protection, increased enforcement authority, and expanded research programs.
 
==References==
{{reflist}}

Revision as of 13:52, 28 June 2009



The following is a partial list of the major commercial petrochemicals and their derivatives:

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