Europe

Europe is the sixth largest (second smallest) continent on Earth with an area of approximately 10,000,000 square kilometers (3,900,000 square miles). It is the third largest continent in population with over 720,000,000 people. By definition, it is technically not a continent, as it is part of the larger Eurasian landmass. The eastern border between Europe and Asia is formed by the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea. Europe also extends to the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Mediterranean Sea in the south, and the Atlantic Ocean in the west.

Etymology

According to Homer the name Europe (Ancient Greek: Εὐρώπη, Eurṓpē) was originally given to central Greece. Later it stood for mainland Greece and by 500 BC its meaning was extented to all the lands of the north. The origin for the word Europe is usually given as from the Greek words for “broad” (eurys) and “face” (ops). In mythology, Europa was a Phoenician princess who was abducted by a bull-shaped Zeus. Another theory derives the name from the Assyrian-Phoenician word ereb (sunset).

History

Europe has a long history of great cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the palaeolithic. The origin of Western culture is generally attributed to the cultures of Ancient Athens, and Ancient Rome. Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Europe entered a long period of stasis, referred to by enlightenment thinkers as the Dark Ages and by most modern historians, the Middle Ages. During this time isolated monastic communities in Ireland and elsewhere carefully safeguarded and compiled knowledge accumulated previously. The Dark Ages came to an end with the Renaissance and the New Monarchs, marking the start of a period of discovery, exploration, and increase in scientific knowledge. From the 15th century European nations, particularly Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Britain, built large colonial empires, with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas, and Asia.

The Industrial Revolution started in Europe in the 18th century, leading to much greater general prosperity and a corresponding increase in population. Many of the states in Europe took their present form in the aftermath of World War I. After the Second World War, and until the end of the Cold War, Europe was divided into two major political and economic blocks: Communist nations in Eastern Europe and capitalistic countries in Western Europe. Around 1990 the Eastern block broke up.

In the last 50 years, Europe has begun a unifying process, which in its current form is known as the European Union and consists of 27 countries. These states are also members of the European Economic Arena (EEA). The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is a third, smaller group; some states are also members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) comprising several former nations of the Soviet Union.

Geography

Extent

Geographically Europe is a part of the larger landmass known as Eurasia.

Its eastern boundary with Asia is defined by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caucasus Mountains and Turkey's eastern frontier. Nevertheless, another widespread, classical definition of Europe states that its eastern boundary is also defined by the Turkish Straits (Bosphorus, Sea of Marmara and Dardanelles) and by the eastern coast of the Aegean Sea, locating a little part of Turkey in Europe (i.e. Eastern Thrace) and its largest part in Asia (i.e. Anatolia or Asia Minor). The western boundary is formed by the Atlantic coast, but the British Isles and Iceland, are also included. The Scandinavian countries form its northern boundary and it is bounded on the south by the coast of North Africa.

In practice the borders of Europe are often drawn with greater regard to political, economic, and other cultural considerations. This has led to there being several different 'Europes' that are not always identical in size, including or excluding countries according to the definition of 'Europe' used. The idea of a European 'continent' is not universally held. Some non-European geographical texts refer to a Eurasian Continent, or to a European 'sub-continent', given that 'Europe' is not surrounded by sea and is, in any case, much more a cultural than a geographically definable area. In the past concepts such as 'Christendom' were deemed more important.

So, the following states are often regarded as being at the edges of Europe:

• Turkey is in Europe (Eastern Thrace) and in Asia (Anatolia or Asia Minor).
• The island of Cyprus may be considered European or Asiatic.
• The Caucasus region, including Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, may be considered European or Asiatic.
• Russia belongs to Europe (i.e. the Russian historical heartland) and to Asia east of the Ural mountains (i.e. Siberia).
• Kazakhstan is usually viewed as an Asiatic country, but its far western region, located west of Ural River, is sometimes included in Europe.
• The island of Malta may be considered European or African.

According to this definition issues, the European states are the following (in alphabetical order):

1. Albania
2. Andorra
3. Armenia (edge of Europe)
4. Austria
5. Azerbaijan (edge of Europe)
6. Belarus
7. Belgium
8. Bosnia and Herzegovina
9. Bulgaria
10. Croatia
11. Cyprus (edge of Europe)
12. Czechia
13. Denmark
14. Estonia
15. Finland
16. France
17. Georgia (edge of Europe)
18. Germany
19. Greece
20. Hungary
21. Iceland
22. Ireland
23. Italy
24. Kazakhstan (edge of Europe)
25. Kosovo
26. Latvia
27. Liechtenstein
28. Lithuania
29. Luxembourg
30. the Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
31. Malta (edge of Europe)
32. Moldova
33. Monaco
34. Montenegro
35. the Netherlands
36. Norway
37. Poland
38. Portugal
39. Romania
40. Russia (edge of Europe)
41. San Marino
42. Serbia
43. Slovakia
44. Slovenia
45. Spain
46. Sweden
47. Switzerland
48. Turkey (edge of Europe)
49. Ukraine
50. the United Kingdom
51. Vatican City

Note that Europe includes the following, de facto, independent territories, with no or very little international recognition: Abkhazia (edge of Europe), Nagorno-Karabakh (edge of Europe), Northern Cyprus (edge of Europe), South Ossetia (edge of Europe) and Transnistria.

Regions

Western Europe is always assumed to include: the British Isles (United Kingdom, Ireland), the central western mainland (France, Monaco) and Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg). It usually also includes Germany, though geographically the country may be more central European. In some circumstances, it refers to the entire western half of Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal, Andorra), the Italian peninsula (Italy, San Marino, Vatican City), the Nordic Countries or Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Denmark) and the Alpine Countries (Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Slovenia). Used in a historical or political sense (referring to Cold War divisions), this term may even include Greece and Turkey.

Northern Europe is depicted as only encompassing the Nordic Countries (i.e. "Scandinavia" in the widest sense: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Denmark). The term Northern Europe does, however, usually cover a much larger area, in fact an arbitrary part of Europe north of the Alps. Typically, it includes the British Isles (the United Kingdom and Ireland), Benelux (Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), Northern France, Germany, often all the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), sometimes Poland, and on occasion even Russia.

Central Europe is not perhaps as common a term as Western or Eastern Europe. Most of the countries included in the definition are often labelled Western or Eastern. A definition of Central Europe usually includes the Visegrad Group (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary) and often also the Alpine Countries (Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Austria, Slovenia and sometimes Germany). According to the most recent usage, Central Europe may even be those countries that joined the European Union on 1 June 2004. This would mean Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary (the Visegrad Four), Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia (the Baltic States), Slovenia, Cyprus and Malta.

Southern Europe is a term used in much the same ways as Northern Europe. It includes the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal, Andorra), the Italian peninsula (Italy, Vatican City, San Marino) and the Balkan Peninsula (Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Serbia & Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria). Usually the Mediterranean States (Cyprus, Malta) and Asia Minor (i.e. Turkey) are also included. In a cultural sense, southern France (i.e. Occitania) may be included.

Similarly to Western Europe, the term Eastern Europe may be used in a strict or broad sense. It includes the European CIS States (Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia), and not seldom the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Poland. It often includes the Caucasus or Transcaucasian countries (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia), though these are often also regarded as part of Asia. In a broader economic/political context, it may also encompass all of the Visegrad Group (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary) and the Balkans (Croatia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Serbia & Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria).

Culture

Religion

Religious observance in Europe is dominated by the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Christianity being the majority religion in its northern countries and Islam in Bosnia, Albania, Kosovo, Kazakhstan, North Cyprus, Turkey and Azerbaijan. Roman Catholiicism is the principal religion of most of the countries of Western, Central, and Southern England, the major exceptions being the predominantly Protestant countries of Germany and the United Kingdom. Protestantism also predominates in the Scandinavian Countries of Northern Europe, and the mostly Christian countries of Eastern Europe are generally either Catholic or Orthodox.

Treaties and agreements

The Brussels Treaty

The Treaty of Economic, Social and Cultural Collaboration and Collective Self-Defence, was signed in 1948 by Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom was amended by the Paris Agreements signed on 23 October 1954 . The signatories undertook: -

to fortify and preserve the principles of democracy, personal freedom and political liberty, their constitutional traditions and the rule of law; to co-ordinate their efforts to create a firm basis for European economic recovery; to afford assistance to each other in maintaining international peace and security and in resisting any policy of aggression; and, to take such steps as may be held to be necessary in the event of a renewal by Germany of a policy of aggression.

The modified treaty established the Western European Union and set a date for its expiry, which is now scheduled for the end of June 2011, its functions having been replaced by those of European Union's Foreign and Security Policy.

The Treaty of Lisbon

The Treaty of Lisbon is the most recent of a succession of treaties beginning with the Treaty of Rome in 1957 and including the creation of the European Union by the Maastricht Treaty.

European Convention on Human Rights

The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms came into force in 1953. It is an undertaking by its signatories to secure the following rights and freedoms to everyone within their jurisdiction:-

right to life, prohibition of torture, prohibition of slavery and forced labour, right to liberty and security, right to a fair trial, no punishment without law, right to respect for private and family life, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and association, right to marry, right to an effective remedy, and the prohibition of discrimination.

- and to abide by the judgments of the European Court of Human Rights and take all necessary measures to comply with them.

Organisations

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe covers virtually the entire European continent, with its 47 member countries (including all the countries of Europe except Belarus, the Vatican City, Kazakhstan, and Monaco). It seeks to develop common and democratic principles based on the European Convention on Human Rights and other agreement concerned with the protection of individuals.

European Court of Human Rights

The European Court of Human Rights rules on individual or State applications alleging violations of the European Convention on Human Rights. Since 1998 it has sat as a full-time court and individuals can apply to it directly. The Court has delivered more than 10,000 judgments. They are binding on the countries concerned and have led governments to alter their legislation and administrative practice in a wide range of areas.

Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe

The Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe was founded by the United Nations in 1975 as the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe. Its functions include preventive diplomacy, conflict prevention and crisis management, and post-conflict reconstruction. It has acquired a rôle in attempts to resolve conflicts with the Russian Federation. It has missions in Kosovo, Georgia and Afgnanistan. Its first summit for 11 years was held in Astana on 2 December 2010.

European Union

The European Union is a group of 27 countries that share a common political ideology. It is governed jointly by Ministers of member countries' governments and a directly-elected Parliament. It is an association of sovereign states, but its constitution provides for the central control of defined aspects of political, social and economic policy. 16 of its members have joined in an economic and monetary union known as the eurozone, membership of which involves the adoption of the euro as their common currency, the delegation of monetary policy to a European Central Bank, and the acceptance of agreed limits on the conduct of fiscal policy. The future of the eurozone is under review,