Neanderthal
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The Neanderthals (Also spelled Neandertal. The original German spelling includes an h but is pronounced as if no h is present.) [1] are an extinct nonmodern hominid that come chronologically extremely close to the modern era, becoming extinct less than 30,000 years ago.
Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis? As the most well known archaic Homo sapien, it is often questioned whether they are directly ancestral to fully modern Homo sapiens or merely an extinct cousin. They are very well adapted to cold environments, with shortened forearms and lower legs to reduce surface area resulting in less lost body heat. They were indisputably big game hunters with a high reliance on meat in their diet. The Mousterian tool industry is associated with Neanderthals. Evidence supports the earliest examples of compassion and ritual come with Neanderthals.
Discovery
Neander Valley, literally translates in German as "Neandertal", in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia, where the river Düssel flows to meet the Rhine. It is here that the first fossil to be recognized as a different kind of human is discovered. It is on this day in August of 1856 that many claim is the beginning of the field of paleoanthropology. Miners in search of limestone blast open the entrance to a small cave, Feldhofer Cave (also called Feldhofer grotto) where an array of fossilized bones are found. The miners mostly discard the bones, but set some aside to bring to a local school teacher. Included in this group is a skullcap that will eventually become the holotype of Homo neanderthalensis (see #Sites and Significant fossils below). The fossil displays a long skull joining with very pronounced brow ridges above the orbits. In addition, the miners come across two femora, five arm bones, part of the left ilium, portions of a scapula and multiple ribs. The fossils are delivered to a school teacher and amateur natural historian, Johann Fuhlrott.[2]
Fuhlrott recognizes the importance of the bones and quickly brings them to the professor of anatomy at the University of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. After much examination, the pair present their discovery of the Neanderthaler ("Neanderthal Man")[3] in June of 1857 where they highlight what they believe to be the great antiquity of the specimen. Unable to accurately describe the unusual cranial characteristics of the Neanderthaler, Schaaffhausen concluds that this individual must have belonged to an ancient aboriginal tribe residing in Germany before modern inhabitation, implying it is simply an inferior version of our own species.
This explanation, along with the emphasis Schaaffhausen and Fuhlrott were placing on the great antiquity of the Neanderthaler, is not well received in the scientific community. Many opposing views surface, the most well received by a leading German scientist Rudolf Virchow. Virchow argues that the abnormal appearance of the skull was due to pathology[4], it was simply a particularly unfortunate affliction this individual suffered and there is no chance it was a different type of human. Betwenn this time and 1914 many new discoveries like Schaaffhausen's Neanderthaler were made in Germany, France, Belgium as well as Croatia. Following WWI, more discoveries were made in Italy, the Ukraine, the Near East and Central Asia. Today, all of these are recognized as Homo neanderthalensis and the Neanderthals have become the most thoroughly studied of the archaic humans.[5]
Morphology
Cranial and Dental Morphology
Homo neanderthalensis has a skull that differs from fully modern humans on many points of interest. Overall, the structure is longer, lower and more robust.
- Cranial: Braincase and face
- The average brain volume has been estimated at 1500cc, slightly larger than the 1400cc of modern Homo sapiens. This is often misleading because when compared to the average body size of each species, modern Homo sapiens have a proportionally larger brain, even if the Neanderthal brain is physically larger.[6] Endocasts point toward Neanderthal dominance on the cerebral, indicating the right and left spheres of the brain were specialized, in line with modern humans. [7]
- A relatively large face that is forwardly situated and projecting.
- Cheekbones are swept back behind a large and open nasal cavity. They feature triangular peninsulas of pone that project into the nasal opining from both sides, increasing the surface area on mucus-producing membranes that, research suggests, aide in warming and humidifying the cold and dry air associated with the tundra environment of Neanderthals. [8]
- On the rear of the skull is what is commonly referred to as an "occipital bun" where an increase in bone surface area allows for more muscle attachment. It is at this point where certain neck muscles anchor into pits, the supeainias fossae. This adaptation leads to increased power in the neck and shoulders.
- Large, bony brow ridges above the orbits. The brow ridges are functionally linked to the retracting forehead, as the forehead becomes less and less vertical, the brow ridges become necessary in order to absorb the heavy stress generated in the face during chewing.
- Dentition: Specialized chewing apparatus
- Very large front teeth with reduced size in the rest of the dentition, also evidence of scraping animal and plant material against front teeth, leading to heavy wear. [9]
- Upper incisors built up by ridges on the side, "shovelled" or describes as shovel shaped. [10]
- The back teeth often have additional cusps and taurodont ("bull-toothed") roots [11] produced by a delayed turning-in of the roots during dental formation. This results in the molars obeing poorly or only slightly seperated from each other.[12]
- Very powerful musulature for a forwardly placed jaw. Increased mastoid tuberosity where temporal muscles attatch on each side of the skull towards the rear of the braincase. The posterior temporal muscles aide in the use of the front teeth, hypothesized to increase productivity of scraping with the front teeth, thought to be very important to Neanderthal culture.
- A retromolar gap between the last molar and the rising mandibular ramus, the extension of the jaw bone.
- A bony prominence next to the mandibular foramen, the hole that admits the mandibular nerve from the brain. This relates to the attachment of the sphenomandibular ligament which suspends and rotates the lower jaw, playing a role in stabilizing a large jaw during muscle actions.
Skeletal Morphology
The Neanderthal skeleton is most basically classified as big. The males average around 5'7" and the females 5'3". The largest male on record was discovered in Amud, Isreal at nearly 5'11", and the smallest female at La Ferrassie, France at 5'1".[13]
They are relatively wide with a stocky and broad torso and short extremeties. This general body shape reduces skin surface area and retains heat better than an anatomically modern Homo sapien, key to it's cold weather environment. Neanderthals exihibit musculoskeletal hypertrophy [14], generally the bones are robust with large areas for muscle attachment.
- -Large shoulder and elbow joints
- -Large and wide rib cage
- -Long clavicle
- -Wide scapula with more muscle attachments at the rear
- -Bowed and short forearm leading to a strong gripping hand with wide fingertips.
- -Wide hips with an outwardly rotating, large hip joint
- -Rounded, curved and thick-walled femur shaft
- -Large and thick patella (knee)
- -Short and flattened, thick-walled tibia
- -Large ankle joint
- -Wide and strong toe bones
Unlike all of these features which follow a trend of increased muscle attatchment and wider bones, the superior pubic ramus, the upper-front part of the pelvis, is much more gracile than expected. Being relatively long, thin and flattened, it had been suggested that it may have increased the birth canal to assist a small bodied mother birth a large headed infant, the large brain size needing a longer genstation period. But since this feature is also found in male specimens, it is believed to have widened the pelvis at the front to assist in rotating the blades of the pelvis outward along with the hip joint.[15][16]
Habitat
Culture
Mousterian tradition
Subsistence
Compassion and community
Symbolism, rituals and burials
Sites and Significant fossils
Neander Valley, Germany
Neanderthal 1
This skull cap is the type specimen fossil that all other Neanderthal classifications are based upon, it is the holotype. The brow ridges jut out, leading to the largely horizontal forehead. The cranium is long and low, all features that came to be characteristic of Homo neanderthalensis.
Shanidar Cave, Iraq
Shanidar Cave is located in the Zagros Mountains of north-eastern Iraq. Ralph Solecki and his team excavated the relatively inaccessible cave between 1957 and 1961, discovering the first adult Neanderthal skeletons in Iraq. The site is best known for its evidence of ritualistic burial in pits lined with flowers and for evidence of compassion, having an adult specimen display trauma related injuries and still living to an old age presumably due to help from others.
La Ferrassie, France
This cave site, located in the Les Eyzies region of the Periogord Dordogne Valley of France, is interpreted as having eight individual intentional burials of two adult and six Neanderthal children. These burials date to approximately 35,000 years ago. The specimen La Ferrassie I is one of the most complete Neanderthal skeletons ever discovered. [17]
References
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Hoffecker, John F. A Prehistory of the North: Human Settlement of the Higher Latitudes. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2005.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Hirst, K. Kris. ""La Ferrassie Cave (France)"" About.Com: Archaeology. 2008. Dictionary of Archaeology. 28 Apr. 2008 <http://archaeology.about.com/od/fterms/g/laferrassie.htm>.