John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-1963) was an American political leader and the most prominent member of the Kennedy family. Despite severe medical problems and frequent sexual liaisons (which all remained secret), he defeated Richard M. Nixon in 1960 by attacking the Eisenhower administration as tired and old-fashioned. He was the first (and only) Catholic elected president, with his religion was a major issue in 1960 Kennedy served as the 35th President of the United States from 1961 to 1963 as a Democrat. His 1000 days in office was characterized by glamor and celebrity, and by confrontations with the Soviet Union over Cuba, involved a failed invasion in 1961 and the Soviet introduction of nuclear-armed missiles in 1962. Kennedy forced the removal of the nuclear weapons, and reached an arms limitation agreement with the Soviets, while imposing an economic blockade on Cuba that remains in effect. Apart from the successful launch of the Peace Corps, nearly all his domestic initiatives were blocked in Congress; they became part of his legacy and achieved passage under his successor, Lyndon B. Johnson. He served as a Representative from 1947 to 1952 and a U.S. Senator from 1953 to 1960, representing the state of Massachusetts. Kennedy was assassinated by loner Lee Harvey Oswald, and the shock effect resonated in American life for decades, with public opinion dubious of official explanations and receptive to numerous conspiracy theories. He remains a glamorous symbolic figure of the 1960s.
Early life
Kennedy was born in 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts. He grew up in an Irish Catholic family already steeped in politics and public service, with his grandfather the former mayor of Boston and his father Joseph P. Kennedy a senior New Deal official. He graduated from Harvard University in 1940. During World War II he joined the United States Navy and participated in war's Pacific theatre of operations. Serving on a patrol boat, he was injured in a naval battle, where he acted heroically. In 1946, he was elected by his home state to the United States Congress. Besides politics, he was an avid swimmer and he wrote a popular book, Profiles in Courage.
Political career
He served as a congressman from 1947 to 1953 and was elected to the Senate in 1952. In 1956, he attempted to gain the Democratic nomination for the Vice Presidency, and was favored by the presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson. However, Estes Kefauver was chosen instead. He served in the Senate until 1960, when he resigned to assume the presidency.
Election of 1960
In 1960, Kennedy was nominated by the Democratic Party for the presidential election. His opponent from the Republican Party was Richard Nixon, the Vice President at that time. The election was marked by the use of televised debate of the first time, between Kennedy and Nixon. During the debate, the young, calm Kennedy gained advantage against Nixon, who appeared awkward on the television.
Building on the enormous wave of ethnic Catholic support for Kennedy, reinforced by Kennedy's book A Nation of Immigrants, the campaign gave priority to ethnic outreach efforts sucvh as "Viva Kennedy!" as part of its effort to reinvigorate the Roosevelt coalition. It went beyond earlier efforts in wooing African Americans and Latinos, who provided the winning margin in several states, and it ushered in modern era of racial/ethnic politics.[1]
Kennedy won the election narrowly, with 49.7% of the popular vote and 303 electoral votes. Nixon obtained 49.5% of the votes and 219 electoral votes. Several southern electors cast their electoral ballot to Harry F. Byrd, a segregationist Senator from Virginia.
Presidency
Although Kennedy's presidency only lasted for two years, his policies, both domestic and foreign, had profound influence in American history.
Domestic policy
During his administration, Kennedy proposed the Medicare but did not succeed (Medicare was enacted, however, under later presidents). He also called for civil rights legislation, but it did not pass Congress.
Civil rights
In 1961 he sent federal marshals to protect Freedom Riders in Alabama.
Foreign policy
Kennedy's presidency was marked by extensive international involvement of the United States, including the establishment of Alliance for Progress and the Peace Corps. He maintained a strong stance against Communist government in Cuba. He ordered the invasion of Cuba by a group of Cuban exiles to overthrow the regime of Fidel Castro, but the invasion was unsuccessful. Subsequently the Soviet Union secretly installed missiles, causing the Cuban Missile Crisis, which could have escalated into a nuclear war. Kennedy responded by a quarantine on Cuba, forcing Khrushchev to remove the missiles.
He played an important role in U.S. involvement in Vietnam, continuing Eisenhower's policy to aid South Vietnam to counteract Communist force of North Vietnam and the Vietcong. His successor, Lyndon B. Johnson, greatly escalated the involvement in the conflict which is referred today as the Vietnam War.
Supreme Court nominations
During his presidency, he nominated two justices to the Supreme Court. They were Byron White, best known for his dissent in Roe v. Wade, and Arthur J. Goldberg, who later left the court to serve as the U.S. Representative to the United Nations.
Assassination
on November 22, 1963, Kennedy died from being shot in Dallas, Texas. According to the first early reports, and then the Warren Commission, it was Lee Harvey Oswald who shot the president. His motives remain unknown and Oswald was himself murdered by Jack Ruby a few days later.
Investigation
After the assassination, President Johnson appointed Chief Justice Earl Warren to lead a commission to investigate. The Warren Commission members include the future president Gerald R. Ford and Allen W. Dulles, former head of CIA. The commission accepted the Single Bullet Theory proposed by the attorney and the future Senator Arlen Specter. However, many any number of contradictory and unfounded conspiracy theories circulated for decades.
Legacy
Many streets and public institutions were renamed in his memory, including John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York. John F. Kennedy's younger brother, Edward Kennedy, is currently serving as a U.S. Senator from Massachusetts.
References
- ↑ Kenneth C. Burt, The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics, Regina Books, 2007; includes interview with the architect of Viva Kennedy.
Bibliography
- Brauer, Carl. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (1977)
- Burner, David. John F. Kennedy and a New Generation (1988)
- Dallek, Robert, An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963 (2003), a standard scholarly biography ISBN 0316172383
- Clarke, Thurston, Ask Not: The Inauguration of John F. Kennedy and the Speech That Changed America ISBN 0805072136
- Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam (2000)
- Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (1997)
- Giglio, James. The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1991), standard scholarly overview of policies
- Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited (1988), scholarly articles on presidency
- Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962)
- Hersh, Seymour. The Dark Side of Camelot (1997), highly negative assessment
- Kunz, Diane B. The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s (1994)
- O'Brien, Michael. John F. Kennedy: A Biography (2005), the most detailed scholarly biography
- Parmet, Herbert. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (1980); JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1983), scholarly
- Reeves, Richard. President Kennedy: Profile of Power (1993), balanced assessment of policies
- Reeves, Thomas. A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (1991) hostile assessment of his character flaws
- Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (1965), major memoir by a close advisor
- Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. Robert Kennedy And His Times (2002)
- Smith, Jean Edward. Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years. Air University Review (March–April 1967) [1]
- Smith, Jean Edward. The Defense of Berlin, (1963)
- Sorensen, Theodore. Kennedy (1966), major memoir by a close advisor
External links
- John F. Kennedy School of Government
- White House biography
- Congressional Biographical Directory
- Voice of America: 1960s
- Voice of America: Election of 1960
- American Presidency Project
- Introduction to the Records of the Warren Commission