English phonemes
In phonology, a phoneme is a distinct unit of sound (phone) by means of which words are distinguished, and spellings are ways of writing these sounds. English phonemes have different spellings depending on a word's provenance and history.
In the following list, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbol for each phoneme is shown first, followed by all its spellings, or graphemes, and a number of examples of each. Where those examples are few, it is because the spelling is rare and they are the only ones.
The pronunciations are those of the language's two main varieties: American English (AmE), where r is pronounced before a consonant, and British and Commonwealth English (BrE), where it is not.
The áccents on bold example words indicate stressed vowels and their pronunciation. An equals sign shows homophones, with words in italics suggesting meaning: sêen saw = scêne scenic, drama, crime. The bullet (●) represents any consonant. An asterisk before a word indicates that it is a respelling to show pronunciation, and thus wrongly (*róngly) spelt. Respellings use typical unambiguous spellings using the normal alphabet plus schwa (ə).
Vowels and diphthongs
IPA /i:/ as in sêa: ê, êa, êe, ê●e, êi, ìê, aê, oê, ì, ỳ, êỳ, êo
ê: bê, mê, récipê, catástrophê, Penélopê, Lêthê, hypërbolê, mêthane, sêrum, dêvious, mêdia, rêtail, dêmon, Êly, mêtre BrE distance, poem
êa: sêa water, lêave, hêat, sêat, bêat hit, nêat, êasy, mêal, drêam, têam, hêath
êe: sêe vision frêe, trêe, fêel, whêel, grêed, fêed, spêed, bêet sugar êel, rêel
ê●e: Pêter, scêne, êven, fêver, mêter AmE (BrE has mêter for the machine, but mêtre for the distance), complête, compête
êi: after c: percêive, recêive, recêipt (-êit), concêit, concêive, cêiling; after w: wêird, wêir (but: wìêld); sêize, Shêila, Nêil, Nêill, O´Nêill
ìê: before v: belìêve, relìêve, grìêve
aê: stressed, from Greek (BrE; AmE has ê alone): Aêschylus, encyclopaêdia; unstressed in Latin plurals: nébulae, nôvae, fŏrmulae
oê: BrE (AmE has ê alone) from Greek: Oêdipus, amoêba, foêtus, oêstrogen, oenólogy, subpoêna
ì: from French: machìne, Christìne, magazìne, nìche, elìte
ỳ: normally unstressed: fúnny, sílly, crâzy, lâzy, êasy, wítty, dextérity, Yvétte, Yvónne; rarely stressed: Lỳón, Lỳse, Mervỳna
êỳ: unstressed: nôsey, pôsey, láckey, jóckey, balôney, álley, Hàrvey
êo: pêople
IPA /ɪ/ sít: í, ý, u, o, e, ', eí, íe
This is one of the six short vowel sounds, á, é, í, ó, ú and ù, that never occur finally.
í: sít, fít, sítter, fítter, fítting, bít, líd, híd, bíd, stíll, bíll = Bíll, Wílliam, fíll, línt, tínt, wríst, pín, tílt, míddle, ínch, fíg, bíg
ý: týpical, sýnthesis, sýnagogue, sýmptom, cýst, mýstic, mýth, trýst, Dýlan
u: business, busy
o: women
e: unstressed, after 'z' sound: Jôneses, Bíggses, after 'ss' sound: Báxes, táxes, cópses, fléxes
’: unstressed, after 'z' sound: jázz's, Jônes’s, Bíggs’s, after 'ss' sound: Báx’s, Bíx's, Díx's, Éssex's, Grāss's
eí: unstressed -feít: còunterfeít, fŏrfeít, sürfeít
íe: unstressed: pàrtíes, fámilíes, lórríes, cárríes, cárríed, márríed, pólicíes
IPA /e/ béd: é, éa, ai, u
This is one of the six short vowel sounds, á, é, í, ó, ú and ù, that never occur finally.
é: béd, Néd, wét, sét, pén, hén, méss, dréss, pép, séven, eléven, Dévon, Édward, Téd, bréd breed, cléver, éver, évery, néver, tén, ténth, dén, crést
éa: déath, bréath, bréast, déad, héad, bréad food, héaven, thréat, thréaten
ai: said (*séd)
u: bury ground (= bérry fruit)
IPA /æ/ cát: á
This is one of the six short vowel sounds, á, é, í, ó, ú and ù, that never occur finally.
fát, cát, sát, mát, Ánthony, ánt, bág, dágger, fán, pán, áttic, spásm, cáttle, brásh, ásh, válve, válue, Sálly
redundant i in: pláit
redundant e in Gáelic Scotland = Gállic France (cf. Gâelic Ireland)
American English uses a long version of á instead of BrE à, except in fàther, Coloràdo, Chicàgo, pajàmas (BrE pyjàmas), càlm, quàlm, bàlm, àlms or when an r follows.
- IPA /ɑ/ càr: à, àr, àl, ó
This sound replaces ó in American English. Words with à in both British and American are:
à: fàther, Chicàgo, Coloràdo, AmE pajàmas, BrE pyjàmas, Tuvàlu, Baràck Obàma (where, however, some BrE speakers instead say bárrack army)
al: (silent l) càlm, bàlm, quàlm, àlms
and whenever an r (always heard in AmE, silent final or before a consonant in BrE) follows:
àr: màr = Màrr, bàr, càr, vàrnish, pàrk, màrvel, stàr, scàr, bizàrre, hàrm, àrm, fàr, càrt, fàrmer, scàr, pàrt, màrk, stàrch, pàrch, màrch, hàrd, gàrden, làrge
- /ɑ/ (à) versus /æ/ (á), as in dānce
The following are pronounced á in AmE but à in BrE (some Northern BrE has a shorter á, however):
ā: Irān, Irāq, cān’t, grānt, āfter, crāft, lāugh, grāph, āunt, dānce
before s: pāst, fāst, cāstle, māster, clāss, ghāstly, nāsty, grāss, lāst, plāster, cāst, pāss, tāsk, blāst, āsk
before th: rāther, pāth, bāth, rāther, lāther
āl, with silent l: hālf, cālf, hālve
- IPA /ɒ/ dóg: ó
This is one of the six short vowel sounds, á, é, í, ó, ú and ù, that never occur finally. It is BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with à.
(Thus AmE pronounces the first words of Lós Ángeles and Làs Vègas the same: this is confusing for BrE speakers, who are as likely to say Lás Vègas, like láss girl, or, perhaps more commonly, "Lós Vègas", like the BrE lóss lose. Also, in AmE, Stefón is a variant spelling of Stefàn.)
ó: hót, gót, spót, bóther, dóg, dóll, nót, stóp, lóst, óften, slób, slóppy, cróss, nód, ódd, shóne, óff, tóffee
ough as -óff: cóugh, tróugh
a after ẁ: ẁant, ẁas, ẁash, ẁasp, ẁarren, ẁander, ẁarrant
after ẁh: ẁhat
after sẁ: sẁap, sẁan, sẁab, sẁamp
after qù: qùantity, qùantum, qùad, qùash, sqùash, sqùad, sqùabble
- IPA /ɔ/ såw: å, åw, åu, åugh, ŏr, ŏre, ŏrps, ŏor, ŏa, ŏur, ŏugh
The r that often occurs after this sound as ŏr is silent in BrE before a consonant, but sounded in AmE.
å: wåter, ålso, Målvern, Sålisbury (*Sålzbry), unstressed in althôugh
before lk: chålk, tålk, stålk, wålk, bålk
before ll: åll, fåll, tåll, båll, apåll, påll, cåll
before lt: ålter, fålter, Wålter, hålt, sålt, althôugh
åw: såw, see, tool, åwful, bråwl, cråwl, fåwn colour, deer, grovel, bråwn, clåw, påw animal, swårm, wårm, wårn, wård, jåw, Shåw, måw
åu: cåuse, påuse, fåult, exhåust, fåun god
åugh: cåught, tåught, åught, nåughty, Wåugh, Våughan = Våughn, Måugham
ŏr: ŏr either, fŏr, nŏr, cóndŏr, fŏrt, pŏrt, sŏrt, shŏrt, whŏrl
ŏre: ŏre metal, cŏre centre, gŏre, pŏre skin, scŏre, sŏre pain, bŏre tedium, hole, ignŏre, deplŏre, restŏre, whŏre (h-), mŏre extra
ŏrps: cŏrps army
ŏor: dŏor, pŏor broke, unfortunate, flŏor, bŏor rude, mŏor land
ŏa: brŏad, abrŏad, brŏadcast
ŏar: ŏar boat, bŏar animal, sŏar fly
ŏur: fŏur, pŏur, mŏurn, tŏurnament
ŏugh: fŏught, bŏught, sŏught, brŏught
- IPA /ʊ/ pùt: ù, oò, oùl, où, o
This is one of the six short vowel sounds, á, é, í, ó, ú and ù, that never occur finally. It is BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with a stressed schwa, /ə/.
ù: pùt, fùll, pùsh, bùsh, bùll, pùll, cùshion
oò: goòd, woòd, soòt, foòt, woòl
oùl: shoùld, coùld, woùld
où: poùffe
o: woman, wolf
- IPA /(j)u:/ trûe: û, ûe, û●e, ûi, oû, oûgh, oô, eŵ, ŵ, o
The long û grapheme repesents two phonemes, /uː/ and /juː/, with various distributions on either side of the Atlantic. For a full discussion of this, see the article on the letter U.
û: gnû, Stû, flû ill, gùrû, êmû, pûny, Mûnich, jûry, Trûdi, dûbious, rûling, mûtiny, nûtrient, trûth, Rûth
ûe: flûe chimney, trûe, blûe colour, glûe, cûe drama, billiards = queûe wait (*kyû)
û•e: Jûne, jûte, flûte, tûne, dûpe, Drûse, fûneral
ûi: frûit, jûice, slûice, crûise
oû: groûp, soûp, coûp hit (= coô)
oûgh: throûgh
oô: oôh, shoô, soôn, foôd, broôd, foôl, schoôl, toôl, moôn, troôp, loôp, droôp, loôse, choôse, groôvy, loôt, toô also, much, coô bird
eŵ: neŵ, neŵs, vieŵ, cheŵ, revieŵ, Jeŵ, bleŵ blow
ŵ: unstressed in Rwánda
ŵo: tŵo 2
o: do, who (*hû) shoe, lose, move, prove, to particle
- IPA /ʌ/ cúp: ú, oú, ò, òo
This is one of the six short vowel sounds, á, é, í, ó, ú and ù, that never occur finally. It is BrE only: in AmE, it is replaced by a stressed schwa, /ə/, while in demotic speech in northern England, it is replaced by ù, /ʊ/.
ú: nút, cúp, slút, túck, spún, fún, dúst, rúst, búst, sún, múck, súck, dúck, BrE cúrrent
oú: doúble, troúble, soúthern; (-úff:) toúgh, enoúgh, roúgh
ò after w: wònder, wòn win, BrE wòrry
before n: frònt, dòne, nòne, òne 1 (invisible w-: = wòn)
before -ve: lòve, shòve, glòve, dòve
before -ther: òther, anòther, mòther, bròther, smòther (cf. bóther)
òo: before d: flòod, blòod
- IPA /ɜ:/ hër: ër, ëar, ïr, ür, ÿr, ör, öur
As with the preceding, this sound does not exist in American English, being replaced by a stressed version of schwa, always with -r sounded. When it occurs before another consonant, the r is silent in BrE and the schwa lengthened to /ɜː/; when it occurs before a vowel, the (always double) r is pronounced and the vowel sound is /ʌ/ (ú or ò).
ër: hër, wëre, përson, vërve, vërdant, sërvant, jërk, fërn, hërd, tërn bird
ëar: hëard, lëarn, yëarn, hëarse, rehëarse, ëarl, pëarl, dëarth
ïr: fïrst, bïrd, dïrt, gïrl, quïrk, ïrk, stïr, whïrr, dïrt, shïrt, skïrt, flïrt, cïrcus, cïrcle, cïrcuit, bïrth, gïrth, fïrm, fïr
ür: bürn, türn round, absürd, chürch, Türk, fürtive, blürt, spürt, hürt, nürse, AmE cürrent (BrE cúrrent), cürtsey
ÿr: mÿrtle, mÿrrh, Bÿrd
ör: only after w: wörld, wörk, wörse, wörst, wörm, wörd, AmE wörry (BrE wòrry)
öur: in -jöurn- and cöurt-: jöurney, jöurnal, adjöurn, cöurteous, cöurtesy
An example of schwa (*shwà) is the neutral grunt which begins the word abòut (*əbòut). A shorter version of /ɜ/, never stressed, it can be spelt a, e, o or, less often, u, and in Australian and New Zealand English, i, with or without a following r (which is silent in British and Commonwealth English if not followed by another vowel). It also appears as y in Béryl, Síbyl and síbyllîne—and it can be invisible before liquids (i.e. r and l). It even appears as ough in British English: thòrough (AmE *thörô).
First syllable: agô, ahéad, abòut, again (-én), abòve, upón and in names beginning Mac- such as MacNêill—or with the a invisible: McNêill (*Məcnêəl)
Second syllable: ígnorance, pébble, doùble, Chîna, sêater, víctor, bürsar, quérulous, lêmur, fêmur, vísion, nâtion (-sion and -tion always have schwa), Cânaan (double a), dógs’re (informal use of apostrophe)
Third syllable: ígnorance, decîder, Éxeter, Pámela, precürsor, exémplar, ridículous, invâsion
Fourth syllable: América, Tanzanìa, exécutor, cálculator, álligator, unbelìêver, abnegâtion
Fifth syllable: preváricator, prevaricâtion, extërminator
As a word becomes more common, a schwa contained in it may be elided into silence: compare nôtional, which has a schwa for the second o, *nôshənəl, with the much more common nátional, which is usually heard without it: *náshnəl.
There is an unwritten ("invisible") schwa before the liquid sounds r (even silent r as in BrE) and l, as in cãre (which rhymes with prãyer), lãir (which is a one-syllable version of lâyer), ŏil (which rhymes with lŏyal), whîle (*wîyəl), fâil (*fâyəl), sêal (*sêeyəl), knêel down = Nêil, Nêill names (*Nêəl), líttle (as -le), céntre (as -re, BrE, AmE -er)
- IPA /eɪ/ sây: â, âi, ây, â●e, âe, âigh, âu, eâ, èy, èi, èigh, è●e
â: grâvy, pâcy, grâcious, nâval, navy, nâvy, ânal, zâny, stâble, crâving, bâgel, potâto, râzor, BrE vâpour, AmE vâpor
â●e: sâme, gâme, câme, sâve, bâse, trâce, pâce, crâve, lâser, hâver, râve, nâvel stomach Jâmes, hâzel, pâge, nâme, tâme, fâme, flâme, hâte, gâte open, fâte, lâte, wâde, câve, brâve, stâge, grâde, phâse time, moon = fâze confuse, jâde, fâde, brâke speed, lâne road, bâne, mâne horse, gâte open, hâte loathe, wâve hand
âi before l: nâil, âil, quâil, fâil, wâil, tâil, tâilor, Tâylor
before n: pâin, stâin, grâin, trâin, brâin, drâin, lâin lie, detâin, retâin, remâin, Câin, mâin chief, Mâine
before m: âim, clâim, mâim, clâim
before d: âid, mâid, râid
before g: Crâig, Hâig, Hâigh (= Hâgue)
before t: gâit walk, trâit, trâitor
also: wâif, mâize, wâive dismiss
ây final: dây, sây, plây, jây, delây, wây, trây, brây hây, prây prayer, slây kill
before -er: lâyer, slâyer, gâinsâyer (but not prãyer)
âe: Gâelic Ireland, Ísrâel, mâelstrom, phâeton
âigh: strâight, Hâight Ashbury
âu: gâuge
eâ: greât, breâk pieces, off
èy: thèy, grèy, Lèyton, whèy, fèy, prèy on
èi: vèin, vèil, bèige, rèin ride
èigh final: invèigh, nèigh, slèigh snow
before t: wèight, frèight, èight
è●e: crèpe
- IPA /əʊ/ gô: ô, ôa, ôe, ô•e, ôu, ôugh, ôw, ew
ôe final: tôe, dôe, Côe, fôe, hôe, Jôe, Pôe, rôe, wôe, Defôe, flôe ice
ô●e: hôme, vôte, nôte, bôde, explôde, nôde, tône, lône, cône, pôle wood, jôke, dôze, Rôme city, rôte routine = wrôte write, nôse, expôse, brôke, spôke, brôken, spôken, tôken
plus -r: ôver, Dôver, clôver, Grôver, grôcer, vôter
-or substituted for -er: rôtor, môtor, dônor
ô with Latin-style suffixes: hôkum, fôcus, hôcus-pôcus, côca, Rôma
plus y, etc.: pôny, hôly, Tôny, dôzy, rôly-pôly, nôsey, bôgey, phôney (or phony), Jôdie, Jôdy, Jôni, Jôannie, BrE côsy, AmE côzy
ôw: sôw seed, knôw knowledge, slôw, grôw, bestôw, flôw water, Ôwen, môw, lôw down, crôw, thrôw, glôw
final: sô therefore, nô not, gô, frô, lô behold, cô-
oûgh: dôugh bread, althôugh, thôugh
also: grôss, bôth
ôh: ôh, dôh, sôh music
before l, -ld (can be /ɒʊ/): pôll vote, sôul, , ôld, côld, gôld, hôld, sôld
ôa before l: fôal, gôal
before t: gôat, côat, ôat, stôat, bôat, flôat
before k: clôak, ôak
before d: gôad, tôad, rôad
before f: ôaf, lôaf
before m: rôam wander (= Rôme), glôam
ew: sew needle
- IPA /aɪ/ tîe: î, îe, î●e, îgh, îg, ŷ, ŷ●e, ŷe, eî
î: Î me, hî greeting, crîsis, Îsis, Chrîst, fîery, wîry, shîny, tîny, lîme, sublîme
unstressed: álibî, nûclêî, fránchîse, mërchandîse
îe final: vîe, lîe, dîe dead, tîe
î●e: îce, nîce, tîme, fîne, lîne, slîme, twîce, lîce, rîpe, swîpe, smîle, stîle field
îgh: final: hîgh up, sîgh, nîgh
before t: tîght, frîght, brîght, nîght, plîght, sîght
îg before n: sîgn, resîgn, desîgn
aî in place names: Caîro, Thaîland, Dubaî, Sînaî
ŷ: flŷ, bŷ, whŷ, trŷ, rhŷme, spŷ, drŷ, sprŷ, relŷ, denŷ, defŷ, stŷ pig, eye
from -îe before -íng: vŷing, lŷing, dŷing, tŷing (from vîe, lîe, dîe, tîe, cf. trŷing, crŷing)
ŷ●ê: tŷpe, stŷle mode
ŷe: stŷe eye, eŷe sight, aŷe yes, dŷe colour
eî: heîght, Fáhrenheît, seîsmic, O’Reîlly, feîsty, BrE eîther, BrE neîther
- IPA /aʊ/ nòw: òu, òugh, òw, àù, ào
Mostly òu and òw, contrasting with the other sounds of these spellings, oû and ôw (yoû and thrôw). òu has a variation with silent -gh (as does oû: throûgh):
òu: òut, fòul bad, blòuse, tròusers, clòud, thòu, clòut, pròud, wòund wînd, gròund, mòunt, mòuntain, jòust, fòund, dòubt (*dòut), lòuse insect
òugh final: bòugh tree, slòugh swamp = Slòugh town, BrE plòugh
òw final: hòw, nòw, còw, vòw, wòw, bòw down, sòw pig, AmE plòw
before n: bròwn, tòwn, dòwn, fròwn, cròwn, dròwn, renòwn
before l: fòwl bird, òwl, tròwel
before y: dòwry, Lòwry, Bòwery, fròwsty
àù, from German, etc.: àùtobàhn, sàùerkràùt, Sàùdi, Bíssàù, Nàssàù
ào from Chinese, etc.: Mào, Tào, Jào, Làos country
- IPA /ɔɪ/ bŏy: ŏi, ŏy
ŏi before n: jŏin, cŏin, rejŏin, lŏin
before l: fŏil, bŏil, tŏil, spŏil
before ce: rejŏice, vŏice
before st: clŏister, hŏist, jŏist
before t: quŏits, BrE gŏitre, AmE gŏiter
ŏy final: bŏy, jŏy, tŏy, deplŏy, Rŏy, Trŏy, destrŏy
before st: ŏyster
before l: lŏyal, rŏyal
- IPA /ɪə(r)/ êar: êar, êer, êre, ìêr, êir
êar: êar, hêar ear, nêar, têar cry, fêar, Pêarson, drêary, wêary, blêary
êer: bêer, quêer, vêer, lêer, venêer, êerie
êre: hêre there, mêre, revêre, wê’re we are
ìêr: tìêr seats, frontìêr, piêrce
êir: wêird, wêir water
- IPA /eə(r)/ rãre: ãre, ãir, ãyr, ãyer, éãr, ére
ãre: fãre money, food, spãre, shãre, pãre cut, bãre nude, cãre, wãres goods, stãre look
ãr: before y: wãry, vãry, scãry, Mãry
before i: vâriable, shãring
ãir: final: ãir breathe, hãir, fãir reasonable, fun, lãir, stãir step, flãir
before y: fãiry, hãiry
ãyr: Ãyrshire
ãyer: prãyer, Ãyer, Ãyers; this spelling is normally -âyer, however
éãr: béãr animal, tolerate, carry, téãr rip, wéãr clothes, péãr fruit
ére: whére place, thére here, ére before
- IPA /(j)ʊə(r)/ pûre: ûre, ûr, eûr, eŵr
ûre: pûre, cûre, abjûre, lûre, Ûre
ûr: dûring, dûrable, cûrable, pûrest, fûry, fûrious, jûror, jûry court, Ûrals, Arctûrus, Epicûrus, mûral
eûr: neûron, neurótic, Eûrope
eŵr: Jeŵry Jew, Neŵry
/(j)ʊə(r)/ is absent in some dialects, which pronounce it as /(j)ɔ/.
- IPA /aɪə(r)/ fîre: îr, îar, îer, îre, ŷr, ŷre
îr: fîry, wîry, îrony, Mîra, Hîram, choîr
îre: fîre, wîre, desîre, mîre, spîre, îre, irâte
îar: lîar lie, brîar
îer: fîery
ŷr before a: gŷrate, Mŷra, tŷrant
before o: gŷroscope, pyromânia, pyrotéchnic, tŷro
ŷre: lŷre music, pŷre
Consonants
IPA /p/ p, pp
p: píll, pùt, pâper, hôped, cláp, píp, stóp, úp, soûp, droôp, wêep, peêp, híp
pp: pépper, stópped, hópped, clápping, rípper, ápple, rípple, púppy, cópper
IPA /b/ b, bb
b: bŏy, bâke, bîcycle, bâsin, mób, bàrber, snób, snúb, húsband, róbin, bíscuit, bénd, bāth, ablâze, âble, troúble, mâybe, ôbôe
bb: rúbber, ríbbon, ábbey, ébb, róbber, dúbbed, rábbit, Bóbby, búbble
- IPA /t/ t, tt, bt, pt, ed, th
t: tín, tén, toô, trâin, tót, trîte, tríp, tâste, déft, bít, hát, côat, bôat, àrt, tàrt, flïrt, átmosphere
tt: bétter, létter, cáttle, báttle, bóttle, ráttle, bétting, sétting, kéttle, néttle, cátty, bátty, tátty, Bétty, pótty, atténtion
ed, inflexion of past tense verbs after unvoiced consonants: āsked, slípped, hôped, áxed, hélped, chānced, kícked, stópped, lócked, cáshed, míxed, âped, grôssed
bt: dòubt, débt, súbtle
pt: recêipt, ptàrmigan, Ptómely, pterodáctyl
th: Kathmandû, Ánthony (= Ántony, a less common variant, as in Màrk Ántony)
- IPA /d/ d, dd
d: dím, dénse, dîce, dúll, rêad, réad = réd, nêed, stéady, réady, héad, Êden, lâden, rámmed, fílled (ed not 't' after voiced sound, compare above)
dd: rúdder, ádder, ládder, rúdder, kídding, ríddance, Éddie, dóddle, gíddy
- IPA /k/ k, ck, c, cc, ch, cq, q, g, kk
k: kíll, Kenneth, boòk, loòk, dàrk, mêek, pêak, àrk Noah, ínk, thínk, ránk
ck, not initial: báck, néck, síck, déck, píck, wíck, wícked, máckintosh, féckless, réckless, gécko, décker bus = Décker person, tick correct
c before back vowels a, o and u (and also in encephalîtis): cát animal, cán, còme, câter, cút, cárry, cãre, crâter, crâne, curve, cómmon, cót, confûse, cóntrary, contémporary, and finally: àrc, plástic, tíc twitch
cc pronounced 'k' only: sóccer, accrûe, occür, áccolade, and pronounced 'ks': áccident, áccess, accêde, cóccyx
ch: láchrymose, chŏrd, âche, écho, páchydërm
cq: acquîre, acquâint, acquiésce
q: Sádiq, Táriq, Qátar, qát drug
qu sounding like 'kw': quêen, requîre, quîet, quîte, quést, exquísite, líquid
qu as 'k' sound alone: líquor (*líkker), unìque (-êek), Jácqueline (*Jácklêen or = Jácklín)
g (for some speakers): léngth
kk: púkka, Dékker person
- IPA /g/ g, gg
g: dóg, gún, bíg, ángle, fínger, dângle, ôgle, pâgan, flágon, drágon, bôgus
gg: égg, bígger, nóggin, dágger, dígging, flágging, nágged, bógged, flógged
- IPA /tʃ/ ch, tch, c
ch: choôse, cheêse, beêch tree = bêach sand, chóp, cheêr, lúnch, châse
final after r: lürch, përch, àrch, màrch = Màrch, besmïrch
tch: ítch, ítchy, fétch, pátch, ẁatch, dítch, wítch, scótch, kétchup, nótch, and from Russian, etc., Pétrovi(t)ch, Mikhaîlovi(t)ch, and other patronymics
initial only in a few imported names: Tchaikóvsky, Tchicaî
c in -ic ending of names from Serbian, etc.: Ivanísevic, Ivánovic, Pílic, Káradjic, Milósevic
also: céllo
- IPA /dʒ/ j, dj, g, dg, gg, du, di
j: Jâne, jélly, Jáck, jôke, Jóhn, Jônes, Jím James, jërsey = Jërsey, jejeûne, jàr, ajàr, jêep, Jûlie, Julŷ, môjo, cajôle, rejéct, jíngle, jángle, júngle, jîbe, jûry
dj: adjúst, adjöurn, ádjective, ádjúnct, Djiboûti, Abidján
g before e: géntle, âge, râge, gênius, gërm, Gërmany, pígeon, dúngeon, stürgeon, Nigêria, genétic, géneral, géntle, págeant
before i: gîant, gínger, giráffe, gímcrack
before y: gyrâte, gŷroscope, gým gymnasium, gýpsum
dg before e: brídge, édge, hédge, bádger, bádge, búdge, fúdge, cúdgel, dódge, Hódges, lódger, fídget, mídget, dúdgeon, búdgerigar, bádger
before i: cádging, lódging, búdgie
before y: pódgy, dódgy, édgy, púdgy
gg: exággerate
du: dûring, duréss, dûal two = dûel fight (= jeŵel crown) ŏrdure
di: sôldier
- IPA /f/ f, ff, ph, gh, ft
f: fêel, frŷ, frêe, fróg, fâke, fâith, óften, déaf, fít, íf, fŏrce, fåll
ff: óff, éffort, búffer, óffal, clíff, stíff, búff, púff, óffer, óffing
ph: Phílip, grāph, phâse, élephant, philósopher, hîeroglýph, zéphyr
gh: after ou: toúgh, enoúgh, roúgh, cóugh, tróugh
ft: óften, sóften
- IPA /v/ v, vv, f, ph
v: vieŵ, véry, vãry, shâve, háve, drîve, vâgue, vôte, vâcant, vîolent, Stêven, vāst, vãrious, avër, còver, hóver, ôver, léaven, lêave, wêave
vv: flívver, révved, bóvver
f: óf
ph: Stêphen
- IPA /θ/ unvoiced th
thíck, thín, trûth, Rûth, rûthless, bréath, ûndernêath, thínk, píthy, ísthmus, bôth, lôth or lôath, bréath, wrêath, déath, mòuth noun
This sound is absent from some dialects, which pronounce it as f.
- IPA /ð/ voiced th, dh
th: thén, thére, thís, thát, thús, thôugh, thêrefore, òther, bròther, mòther, wíth, brêathe, wrêathe, lôathe, clôthe BrE eîther AmE êither, wéather clouds = whéther if, mòuth verb
dh: Rìyadh, édh
This sound is absent from some dialects, which pronounce it as v.
- IPA /s/ s, ss, sc, st, c, ps
s: sêe, såw, sêen, sôap, séven, séptic, sêrial drama, sŏurce, spécial, ûse noun, ûsage, āsk, flāsk, tāsk, bāsk, désk, whísk, dúsk
ss: máss, lóss, drôss, grôss, méssy, véssel, hássle, guéss, dréss, kíss, híss
sc scêne, scéptre, coalésce, acquiésce
st: whístle, lísten, grístle, mústn’t, hâsten, hústle, bústle, fāsten, cāstle
c before front vowels: nîce, îce, fâce, cêreal breakfast, spâcy, lícit, âce
ps: pseûd, psychólogy, psŷche
- IPA /z/ z, zz, s
z: zoô, zône, zíp, hâzel, prétzel, ôzone, ádze, dôze, AmE côzy, râzor
zz: búzz, fízz, dázzle, púzzle, núzzle, jázz, whízz, búzzer
s: ûse verb, êasy, nôse, nâsal, lâser, BrE côsy, pôsy, pôse, lâser
There is an invisible z sound when the possessives of certain nouns, usually names, are written without the final -s after an apostrophe itself preceded by s: Jônes' for Jônes's, Kêats' instead of Kêats's, Wílls' = Wílls's, even Knóx' instead of Knóx's—though some speakers may adopt a spelling pronunciation and not sound it either
- IPA /ʃ/ sh, ssi, sch, s, ch, ce, ci, ti, xi
sh: shíp, shóp, shoôt, shín, shîne, blúsh, mésh, dísh, ẁash, ásh, áshen, fáshion, shéd, shélter
ssi: pássion, físsion, míssion
ss before u: assůre, préssure
sch: schwà, schnápps, schmåltz
s: AmE sûre, insûre, BrE sůre, insůre
Si from Welsh and Irish: Siàn, Siobhăn *Shivăwn
Se from Irish: Seăn (= Shăwn, Shăun)
ch from French: machìne, nîche, pastîche, BrE moustàche, AmE mústáche, gauche (ô), brôchure, créche, panáche, Míchigan
ce: ôcean, crustâcean
ci: spêcies, spêcious, précious, vícious
ti: fíction, áction, nôtion, devôtion, môtion, lôtion, complêtion, fictítious, milítia
xi includes an initial 'k' sound: nóxious (*nókshəss), ánxious (*ánkshəss)
- IPA /ʒ/ zh, zu, si, su, g
Though most conveniently described as the zh sound, as this is the spelling used when romanising from Russian, etc., it is not normally spelt thus, si being the most frequent rendition. In French the sound is common and rendered with a j:
j: joie de vivre *zhwàdə-vìvrə, le mot juste *ləmô-zhûst
zh: Brézhnev, Solzhenýtzin, Yoûzhny
zu: ázure, sêizure
si: vísion, télevision, cohêsion, lêsion, Âsian
su in -sure: pléasure, tréasure, AmE lêisure BrE léisure, clôsure
g from French: Nigér, ágent provocateur *ájahmprovoca-tër
- IPA /h/ h, wh
h: hélp, hít, heáven, héll, hàrbour, hôme, hórror, hórrible, hôpe, ahéad, ahŏy, àhà, Mahôney, enhānce, Hárris, Hámpstead, háppen, hápless
wh: who (*hû), whôle, whoôping-cóugh
This sound is absent from some dialects, such as Cockney.
- IPA /m/ m, mm, mb, mn
m: múch, môst, Mîchael (*Mŷcle), émpty, mén, míx, glámour, ámber, ámble, whím, dímple, crúmple, crúmble, húmble, ámber, ámplify, woman (*wùmən), women (*wímən), mémory
mm: hámmer, dímmer, glímmer, jámming, swímming, swímmer, símmer, púmmel, búmmer, súmmer
mb final: thúmb, cômb, dúmb, lámb, clîmb, tomb (*toôm) plúmb
mn final: åutumn, hýmn, cólumn
- IPA /n/ n, nn, kn, pn
n: nô negative, neŵ old, nót negative, nîght day, nêed require, néver, níl, énemy, sént, nâtive, nôbody, nô-one, noôn, noôdle, nûisance, nést, nâve church
nn: Ánn, Ánne, dínner, ínnings, pénny, ínner, púnning, wínner, fúnnel, túnnel
kn: knôw knowledge, kneŵ know, knót tie, knîght chess, Sir, knêad dough, knêe, knâve jack
pn: pneumátic, pneumônia
- IPA /ŋ/ ng, n
A restricted phoneme, the ng sound does not begin syllables except in transcriptions of e.g. Vietnamese names, and so is not normally found initially, only medially and finally:
finally: thíng, síng, sáng, súng, sínger, hánger coat, hángar plane, wíng, spríng, lóng
the g sound added afterwards: lónger (*lóng-ger), fínger, ánger, húnger, ángle, síngle, dángle, Bángra
n before k: thínk, pínk, ínk, wínk, sínk, sánk, súnk, púnk, tánk, dánk, tánker, pínker, ánkle, wínkle, tínkle, línks link
before c: úncle, càrbuncle, ráncour, sánction, júnction, zínc
before x: ánxious (*ángshus or *ángkshus), mínx, jínx, lýnx cat
In final position, this sound is absent from some dialects, where it is pronounced as n.
- IPA /l/ l, ll
l: lôw, lót, lénd, fâil, pâil bucket, pâle pallid, Pôle Poland = pôle wood, pál, låw, lîght (*lîte), léss, râil, râiling, âiling, tâilor = Tâylor, trâil
ll: bùll, bùlly, wåll, åll, téll, dóll, pôll election, séll buy = céll prison, biology, wíll, wílling, hóller, tåller, álley, allót, álloy
- IPA /r/ r, rr, rh, wr
r: rêad, réd colour, réad reading, réady, rót, rãre, rôads streets, rāther, rîce, ríddle, AmE rôdeo, BrE rodèo, rôad, rêcent, ràther
rr: árrow, fúrrow, farràgo, sórrow, sórry, mérry, shérry, whérry, bérry, hérring, Mórris, érror, pórridge, Hárry, fürry, BrE wòrry, AmE wörry
rh: rhŷme, rhýthm, rhétoric, rhêsus, Rhôdes name, Greece, rhôdedéndron
wr: wrîte, wrén, wrêak, wrŏught, wrést fight, wréstle, wrínkle, awrŷ
AmE pronounces r before a consonant and finally in words like àrm, hürt and ŏrder; BrE does not.
Sometimes a phantom final 'r' can be heard between two vowels, one ending, the other beginning, a word: Índia(r)and Srì Lánka
IPA /j/ y, i
y: yéllow, yoúng, yét, yoûth, yôke ox, yôlk egg, låwyer, såwyer, Myánmàr, Líbya
i: ònion, mínion, míllion, Wílliam
invisible before û: ûse, tûne, beaûtiful, mûte, mûsic, cûte, cûticle, ukelèlê
IPA /w/ w, wh, u, ou, h
w: wéll, woòd, wísh, awây, wònder, wíll, wéather sunny, ẁant, ẁash, aẁash, wâve, wãry, BrE wòrry, AmE wörry, ẁaddle, ẁander, wónky
wh (pronounced hw in some AmE, Scottish English, etc., where it is regarded by some phoneticians as a distinct phoneme): ẁhat, whén, whére, whŷ, whénce, whéther if, whíp, whístle, whîte
u after q: quêen, quîte, quîet, quést, quáck, quíck, equéstrian, acquîre, quâint, equíp, qùarry, qùadrupéd, qùantum, qùantity, qùality
from Spanish: Nicarágua (-ágwa or -ágyûa), iguàna, marijuàna (*marry-yoû-wànə)
ou from French, initial in Ouagadoûgou (Wág-), Ouattara (various as stressed)
h in two Hebraic names: Côhen, Ménuhin
IPA /χ/ kh, ch, gh
distinguished by some speakers from /k/:
kh: shèikh, Khàlid, Khayyám
ch: lóch, Bàch, Búchan, Buchánan
gh: lóugh
IPA /ks/ x, xc, ks, kes, cks, cs, ches, chs
The grapheme x combines the phonemes /k/ and /s/. This is /gz/ for some AmE speakers in some words, for example exáct.
x: láx, tóxic, Níxon, wáx, wáxen, óx, óxen, píxie, táxi, bóx, bóxes, míx, séx, áxle, Téxas, México, hôax, extrême, Tríxie, Díxie, fáx (= fácts, whence it is derived), máximum, Báxter
xc: éxcellent, excél, excépt, excéss
chs: in names from German: Óchs (= óx), Fùchs, or accidental in plurals: tríptychs
Also accidental in plurals:
ks: bàrks, loòks, hoòks, spoôks, tålks, wålks, boòks, sêeks, fôlksy
kes: tâkes, sâkes, bâkes, câkes, jôkes, lîkes, êkes, nûkes, blôkes
cks: sócks, pícks, trícks, pécks, knócks, búcks, tícks marks
cs: àrcs, tícs nervous, mathemátics, lûnatics, mâniacs, médics, geriátrics, pediátrics, holístics
ches: âches, héadaches
- Other double consonants, such as ts and ps, which are phonemes in some languages, also occur accidentally, as in géts and cŏrpse