Terrorism

The bombed remains of the Federal Building in Oklahoma City after a terrorist bomb exploded killing 168 and wounding another 800, 19 Apr. 1995.

Terrorism refers to any act, nearly always violent, unpredictable, and chaotic in nature, often targetting civilians, intended to create an atmosphere of fear in order to obtain a political objective. Terrorism has been practiced by both left-wing and right-wing political organizations, religious and nationalistic groups, revolutionaries, as well as — to use the somewhat controversial notion of "state terrorism" — armies, police, and security forces. Since non-governmental terrorist groups are generally small in numbers and have few resources available, they rely on dramatic and destructive hit-and-run acts of violence to seize the attention of the general population, thereby seeking to impose their influence through the publicity associated with their violence. Acts of terrorism include bomb scares and bombings, hijackings, assassinations, kidnappings, cyber-attacks, and attacks using biological, chemical, and — theoretically — nuclear weapons.

Definition

"Above the gates of hell is the warning that all that enter should abandon hope. Less dire, but to the same effect, is the warning given to those who try to define terrorism." quoted by Lord Carlisle in a report to the UK Parliament

Terrorism has many definitions and the concept is the subject of much controversy. The term terrorism was first used in the 1790s to describe terror used by government during the French Revolution. The revolutionary French government under Robespierre systematically used what they called "terrorism" in what became known as the Reign of Terror; the agents that enforced the government policies were referred to as "terrorists". For Robespierre, "Terror" meant simply "prompt, severe, inflexible justice"; and was "a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to the most pressing needs of the fatherland." (Address, National Convention, 1794). However, the terrorism of the French Revolution is not what is now generally meant by "terrorism".

Based on a survey of leading academics, there are at least 109 different definitions of terrorism (Schmid & Jongman 1988). A compiled analysis of this survey identified the following recurring elements:

Recurring elements of terrorism Violence, force (83.5%) Political (65%) Fear, emphasis on terror (51%) Threats (47%) Psychological effects and anticipated reactions (41.5%) Discrepancy between the targets and the victims (37.5%) Intentional, planned, systematic, organized action (32%) Methods of combat, strategy, tactics (30.5%)

Weinberg et al. (2004) explore why it is so hard to define terrorism. They emphasize the difficulties associated with all "essentially contested concepts," noting also such problems as conceptual "stretching" and "traveling." In an effort to solve these difficulties, they seek a consensus definition of terrorism by turning to an empirical analysis of how the term has been employed by academics over the years. Specifically, the well-known definition developed by Alex Schmid, based on responses to a questionnaire he circulated in 1985, is compared with the way the term was used by contributors to the major journals in the field: Terrorism: Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, and Terrorism and Political Violence. The 22 "definitional elements" of Schmid's definition are compared to the frequency with which they appear in these journals. If these elements appear frequently in both the Schmid definition and those employed by the journal contributors, they are then used to form a consensus definition of the concept. The most striking feature of this academic consensus over the meaning of terrorism is the virtual absence of references to the psychological element, heretofore widely thought to be at the heart of the concept.

The common elements of terrorism, as stated by Ganor (2002), are “the use of, or threat to use, violence”; “the goal is to attain political objectives”; and “the targets of terrorism are civilians”. The most widely accepted legal definition is defined in Title 22 of the U.S. Code, Section 2656f(d), which states: "The term ‘terrorism’ means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience."

Often the definition of terrorism varies among the various agencies of a country's government, an example of this is in the USA:

Agency	Definition
Department of Defense	The calculated use of unlawful violence to inculcate fear, intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.
FBI	The unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives
State Department	Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.

State Sponsorship of Terrorism

There are basically three categories of state sponsorship of terrorism. These are as follows:

1. States supporting terrorism – “states that support terrorist organizations, providing financial aid, ideological support, military or operational assistance” (Ganor 2002) 2. States operating terrorism – “states that initiate, direct and perform terrorist activities through groups outside their own institutions” (Ganor 2002) 3. States perpetrating terrorism – “states perpetrating terrorist acts abroad through their own official bodies” (Ganor 2002) or perpetrating terrorist acts domestically (i.e. within its own borders).

Characteristics of Terrorist attacks

Planning and organization

Terrorist attacks are planned to ensure the largest amount of publicity to spread their cause to the general population. An example is the 1998 bombing of U.S. embassies in Kenya, which took al-Qaeda nearly five years to plan.

When planning a major attack, the terrorists gather intelligence on the intended target such as its defenses and vulnerabilities. Logistics specialists assemble the weapons, communications equipment, and arrange transportation and escape routes for the team that will carry out the attack. Once all the preparations are complete, the terrorist team will execute the plan. Usually separate teams carry out each step for security reasons so if one team is captured, they can't tell about the other team.

All terror groups usually keep their plans secret, operating underground and away from the public and government authorities. Terrorists are often organized into small groups called terror cells which are part of a larger terrorist network and several cells can work together to plan a terrorist attack. Members of one cell usually only know about an adjacent cell, but aren't aware of any other cells. This means that if members of one cell are captured, the entire network will not be discovered.

Targets

He [the revolutionary] is damned always to do that which is most repugnant to him: to become a slaughterer, to sacrifice lambs so that no more lambs may be slaughtered, to whip people with knouts so that they may learn not to let themselves by whipped, to strip himself of every scruple in the name of a higher scrupulousness, and to challenge the hatred of mankind because of his love for it - an abstract and geometric love." Arthur Koestler

The main targets of terrorism are civilians, because they are easy to attack and these attacks create an atmosphere of fear, leading to political discontent. Other terrorist attacks target specific targets such as diplomats or their facilities such as embassies and consulates; military bases; police; business executives and corporate offices; water supply and pipelines; power facilities such as power plants, dams and power grids; and transportation facilities such as airplanes and airports, subways, trains and train stations, and buses and bus terminals. Buildings of political and economic importance are targeted as shown during the 9-11 Attacks in 2001 when the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were hit, while the US Capitol Building was targeted, but never attacked. Most attacks on buildings are usually used to draw attention to the terrorist group rather than to cause death and destruction; though this is caused nonetheless.

Weapons

The Soviet AK-47 Kalashnikov assault rifle is a common weapon of terrorists because of its low cost and wide availability.

Bombing is a common terrorist tactic because of its simplicity and lack of the need of skill to create, plant, and detonate a crude bomb. Assassination, kidnapping, and assaults against well-defended targets require more sophisticated organization, planning, and weaponry. These bombs can consist of commercially produced explosives such as black powder, TNT, plastic explosives; or commercially available materials made into homemade explosives, such as fertilizer (ammonium nitrate) mixed with diesel fuel; these homemade explosives are called "Improvised Explosive Devices" (IEDs). Bombs can be either explosive or incendiary and the most effective bombs usually employ a shaped charge that moves the force of the blast in a specific direction. Bombs can be detonated by time-delay detonators which rely on clocks, watches, and other timing devices; remote-control detonators which use radio or other electronic signals; command-wire detonators use a button which is pressed to trigger the explosion.

Many terrorists use automatic firearms such as assault rifles, pistols, machine guns and submachine guns or rifles with sniper sights. Some terrorist weapons are made outside legal arms factories, these include the Soviet AK-47 Kalashnikov assault rifle and the U.S. manufactured M60 machine gun, which are manufactured in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent. These illegaly manufactured arms are called "improvised firearms" Terrorists have also used both small-sized and heavy-calibre mortars and rocket-propelled grenades or RPGs; the most widely used model of this weapon being the RPG-7. The RPG-7 can pierce through up to 12 inches of the ceramic and reinforced steel layers of armor that protects military and police vehicles. Another favorite weapon of terrorists is the hand grenade and incendiary weapons like the "molotov cocktail" (a glass bottle of gasoline).

Fear of terrorist use of chemical and biological weapons increased after the 1995 sarin nerve gas attack on a Tokyo subway and the 2001 discovery of anthrax spores mailed in the United States. Chemical weapons contain toxic chemical compounds, like dioxin or nerve gas, while biological weapons use living organisms or toxins like anthrax spores.

History

Early examples of terrorism were the actions of the Jewish Zealots. Known to the Romans as sicarii or dagger-men, the Zealots engaged in violent attacks on Roman occupation forces and fellow Hebrews who were accused of collaboration with the Romans. The next group to show characteristics of terrorism were the Assassins. The Assassins were a breakaway faction of Shia Islam called Nizari Ismalis who used the tactic of assassination of enemy leaders. The tactics used by the Assassins involved sending a lone man to kill an enemy leader at the cost of his own life, instilling fear in the enemy.

During Reconstruction after the American Civil War the Ku Klux Klan was formed by defiant Southerners waged a campaign of violence and intimidation against freed former slaves and supporters of Reconstruction. In the late 19th century, small groups of revolutionary anarchists were formed. These anarchists assassinated heads of state from Russia, France, Spain, Italy, and the USA. But their lack of organization and refusal to cooperate with other social movements made anarchism ineffective as a political movement. However, Communism was just beginning as an ideological basis for revolution, and the 20th century would bring about many new developments in terrorism in support of political aims.

The Growth of Nationalism

Nationalism intensified around the world during the early 20th century and it became a powerful force in the various peoples of colonial empires. Native peoples in Egypt and Vietnam rebelled against the colonial regimes, using dramatic acts which were described as terrorism. The Black Hand was a group active before World War I that was involved in the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria which was considered an act of terrorism that started the First World War. After World War I terrorism became an official policy in states such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, the leaders of these states, used arrest, torture, imprisonment, and execution to bring fear to the people of the country so they would not question their actions.

Algeria

Perhaps the first example of a modern terrorist movement was Algeria's Front de libération nationale (FLN) which killed random French civilians in a campaign to win independence for Algeria from colonial rule by France. In 1956 France executed two Algerian rebels, which caused the FLN to kill 49 French civilians in three days, bombing beachside cafes and eventually raising the price of colonialism to levels too high for many colonial empires. By the end of the war in 1962, about 300,000 people had died; the war was accompanied by extreme brutality on both sides. Terrorist attacks killed many thousands of French Algerians, other Europeans and Moslem "traitors", women and children were murdered indiscriminately in incidents that shocked public opinion in France. The French antiterrorist actions in response were ruthless: more than 8,000 villages were destroyed, and torture, summary execution and political assassination became widespread, systematic, and largely approved by the French government. The French repression included concentration camps like the "Ferme Ameziane," through which over 100,000 Algerians passed, and during the Battle of Algiers alone, over 3,000 suspects in Algiers police custody "disappeared." . However, this repression merely led to increasing support for the independence movement and for insurrection amd to a bitter anger against the French, and after the end of the war, the FLN slaughtered thousands of the "harkas", the Algerian soldiers who had fought with the French.

The FLN's success inspired rebel groups around the world to adopt terrorist tactics, including Basque separatists, Palestinian and Irish nationalists, and Marxist African and Latin American cabals. In all cases, the tactical message from the FLN was that terrorist attacks on civilians, by promoting public outrage could lead to vicious counter-terrorism, that would bring increasing number of recruits to the insurgency cause, leading, after a cycle of increasing violence and destruction, to eventual victory.

Ireland

In Ireland, the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) was founded to try to end Northern Ireland's status as part of the UK, and establish a united socialist Ireland by armed force. The organisation was made illegal in both the UK and in the Republic of Ireland, but was extensively financed by sympathisers in the USA . The Provisional IRA's strategy was to use violence to cause the collapse of the Northern Ireland administration, and to cause so many casualties among the British security forces that British public opinion would force the government to withdraw those forces, against the will of the majority Unionist community in Northern Ireland. Initially a small group with little support even among the nationalist Irish community, the Provisional IRA benefited hugely from the decision of the British government in 1971 to introduce internment in Northern Ireland. Internment - detention of terrorist suspects without trial, was a response of the Government to intimidation of witnesses in court proceedings, but the internment camps, in which large numbers of suspects were held indefinitely, became training and indoctrination camps for the inmates, and the lack of legal process provoked widespread discontent amongst the Nationalist community, and lost the British Government the "moral high ground" Between 1971 and 1994, the armed campaign mainly targeted the British Army, the Royal Ulster Constabulary, the Ulster Defence Regiment, and economic targets in Northern Ireland, but it also included sectarian killings such as the Kingsmill massacre of 1976.

The IRA also took its campaign to England, including planting bombs in pubs in Birmingham, and they targeted British government officials, politicians, judges, and police officers in England and elsewhere. The armed campaign ended in 2005, allowing the political wing of the nationalist movement, Sinn Feinn, to enter into a power-sharing agreement with the Unionist political parties. During the campaign, it is estimated that the provisional IRA were responsible for about 1,800 deaths including 1,100 members of the security forces and about 600 civilians.

The Middle East

But Western terrorism of the 60s and 70s wasn't nearly as deadly as the violence in the Middle East that was yet to come. In the years surrounding the formation of the modern state of Israel, Jewish paramilitary groups used terrorist tactics both to expel the British authorities (who then ruled Palestine) and to drive the Arab civilian population from their homes and villages in an attempt to create a territory within which Jewish settlers would be the majority. Prominent among these groups was the Irgun Zvai Leumi (IZL). In February 1944, Menachim Begin, then a commander of the IZL, announced the start of an underground campaign against the British authorities.[1], a campaign that included bombing the King David Hotel in Jerusalem, which killed 91 people. After Israel achieved independence, Begin entered the political mainstream; he was to become its sixth Prime Minister, and a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize.

The Irgun campaign involved conquest and occupation of territory then occupied by Arabs. One typical target was the small Arab settlement of Deier Yassin. In April 1948, Irgun fighters entered the village to expel the inhabitants, and, when they met some resistance, killed a large number of the villagers (exactly how many is disputed). This event, the so-called "Massacre of Deier Yassin", greatly added to the fear of the Palestinians, leading them to flee their homes and villages in increasing numbers, so accomplishing Irgun's objectives. In the process a large population of Palestinian Arab were made refugees, and indeed became "stateless".

In the refugee camps, anger and resentment, in continuing conditions of poverty and insecurity, provided the seeds for a resistance movement that itself turned to terror as a tactic. Yasser Arafat's Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) committed many dramatic acts of terrorism, including the massacre of 11 Israeli athletes during the 1972 Munich Olympics. But since the PLO's goals were political, rather than religious, Arafat distanced himself from terrorism. However, while the PLO itself turned from violence towards conventional political activity, other groups, particularly extremist groups of Islamic fundamentalists became active. Islamic fundamentalism spread throughout the Middle East, spawning groups such as al-Qaeda and Hamas. Hamas, the "Liberation Tigers" of Tamil Eelam, and other groups adopted suicide bombing tactics, not just to inflict damage, but for religious motivation. Many Muslims thought that the USA stood for immoral values, and many terrorists, such as Osama bin Laden, made the USA their primary target. These terrorists thought that destroying the USA would be doing the work of God.

Attacks on the USA

Some of the deadliest terrorist attacks on US soil happened in the 1990s, including the 1993 World Trade Center Bombing and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, when 168 people were killed and another 800 injured. Several other American targets overseas were attacked including military installations in Saudi Arabia in 1996 and U.S. embassies in Kenya in 1998. In response to this attack, the United States attacked several terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan with ship-launched cruise missiles.

But the deadliest terrorist attacks to date were the 9-11 Attacks when al-Qaeda hijacked four American airliners in a suicide mission, crashing two into the World Trade Center and one into the Pentagon; the fourth crashed in rural Pennsylvania when the passengers attempted to take control of the plane. The attacks killed nearly 3,000 people. Shortly after these attacks US president George W. Bush declared a global war on terrorism in 2001. After 2001, terrorist attacks continued around the world, most notably the 2004 Madrid, Spain train bombings and bombings in London, United Kingdom on one double-decker bus and three London Underground trains in 2005.

Chechnya

Currently amongst the most active terrorist groups are Islamic fundamentalist groups linked to insurgents seeking the independence of Chechnya from Russia. Chechen separatists have deliberately attacked civilian targets; in 2004 an attack on a school in North Ossetia left 300 dead, mostly children, and in 2002, Chechen commandos attacked a theater in Moscow taking 700 civilians hostage. But not all Chechen insurgents are terrorists, and Western governments, including the USA, have said that Russia has tried to portray all Chechens as Islamist terrorists in order to justify the harsh measures used to try to crush Chechen resistance. The US State Department has criticised the Russian government, saying that “the lack of a political solution and the number of credible reports of massive human rights violations, we believe, contribute to an environment that is favorable toward terrorism.”

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (the "Tamil Tigers") is a separatist group that seeks an independent state in areas of Sri Lanka that are inhabited by ethnic Tamils. The Tamil Tigers have used conventional, guerrilla, and terror tactics, including 200 suicide bombings, in a civil war that has claimed more than 60,000 lives and displaced hundreds of thousands of Sri Lankans since 1983; a ceasefire was negotiated in 2002, but fighting resumed in 2006. Notable victims of terrorist action were Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, who was assassinatd by Tamil Tigers in 1991, and Sri Lankan president Premadasa, who was assassinated in 1993

Bio-terrorism and chemical terrorism

The possible threats of Bio Terrorism – the release of germs or viruses, such as anthrax, and Chemical Terrorism – the release of poisonous chemicals, have raised wide concern, but so far there have been few incidents of either. A prominent exception is the activities of Aum Shinrikyo (Supreme Truth) in Japan.

Aum Shinrikyo is a Japanese cult founded in 1984 by Shoko Asahara, who initially preached meditation and non violence. Asahara decided that Aum should field candidates for the 1990 Japanese parliamentary elections. However, when none of its candidates were elected, Asahara accused the Japanese government of rigging the elections. Around this time that he started justifying murder on spiritual grounds, in a doctrine called 'poa', and he began to preach to his followers about an approaching nuclear apocalypse, a war between Japan and the U.S., and the group prepared to commit terrorist attacks to hasten that Apocalypse.

In June 1993, the cult released anthrax spores from its Tokyo office building/laboratory, but as they unknowingly used a non-lethal vaccine strain of Anthrax, the attack was ineffective. In June 1994, Aum used sarin gas in an attack in Matsumoto city that killed seven and injuring 144. The targets were three judges hearing a lawsuit over a dispute in which Aum Shinrikyo was the defendant. In March 1995, Aum cultists released sarin nerve gas in Tokyo's subway, killing twelve and injuring more than 5,000. After the attack, Japanese police discovered that Aum Shinrikyo had accumulated enough chemicals to make enough sarin gas to kill millions of people.

Asahara and other leaders of the sect were arrested, tried and found guilty. After Asahara’s imprisonment, Fumihiro Joyu became the new head of the organization. Aum changed its name to Aleph in 2000, forbid the use of poa, apologized for its past acts of terrorism and paid reparation to the victims of the Tokyo sarin attack.

Types of Terrorism

• Bio Terrorism – the release of germs or viruses, such as anthrax
• Chemical Terrorism – the release of poisonous chemicals
• Cyber Terrorism – the electronic attack on critical computer infrastructure
• Nuclear Terrorism – the use of nuclear materials in a terrorist attack, either a nuclear bomb or a "dirty bomb" (highly radioactive chemicals spread by an ordinary exposive)
• Eco Terrorism - the use of acts of violence, sabotage, vandalism, property damage and intimidation committed in the name of environmentalism.
• Religious Terrorism - terrorism motivated by religion.
• Nationalist Terrorism -

Terrorist claims and statements

It is often said, especially by critics of the West and of capitalism, that terrorism is merely a label ascribed by those in power to those who do not accept their authority, and resist it with violent and unlawful means. On this view, whether someone is better described as a "terrorist" or instead as a "freedom-fighter" depends on whether the state's power is thought to be wielded lawfully and fairly. For example, the African National Congress (ANC) was characterised as a terrorist organisation by the apartheid South African government (and by the governments of the UK and USA), but strongly rejected that description. However, in 1963 Nelson Mandela, the leader of the military wing of the ANC Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation"), was sentenced to life imprisonment on terrorism charges. Mandela, at his trial, openly declared his involvement in planning sabotage:

"I do not deny that I planned sabotage. I planned it as a result of a calm and sober assessment of the political situation." Nelson Mandela, at his trial for terrorism in South Africa, 1963

The policy of the ANC at the time was to attack military and government targets and to sabotage economic targets, and not to directly target civilians . However civilians were occasionally victims of these actions; for example, in 1983, a car bomb in Pretoria outside the headquarters of the South African air force killed 16 people. The ANC was legalised in 1990 and renounced violence; Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990, became a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993, and was elected president of South Africa in 1994.

In marked contrast to the ANC, some other groups notably al-Qaeda, very deliberately target civilians. Terrorists typically try to justify their actions to nonbelievers as retaliation for perceived wrongs. Thus Usama bin Laden, leader of al-Qaeda, claimed,

"As for their accusations of terrorizing the innocent, the children, and the women, these are in the category of 'accusing others with their own affliction in order to fool the masses.' The evidence overwhelmingly shows America and Israel killing the weaker men, women and children in the Muslim world and elsewhere." Usama bin Laden, in Nida'ul Islam magazine, October-November 1996.

Usama bin Laden further reached back in time in 2004, claiming,

"God knows it did not cross our minds to attack the towers but after the situation became unbearable and we witnessed the injustice and tyranny of the American-Israeli alliance against our people in Palestine and Lebanon, I thought about it. And the events that affected me directly were that of 1982 and the events that followed -- when America allowed the Israelis to invade Lebanon, helped by the U.S. Sixth Fleet. As I watched the destroyed towers in Lebanon, it occurred to me punish the unjust the same way (and) to destroy towers in America so it could taste some of what we are tasting and to stop killing our children and women." Usama bin Laden, admitting responsibility for attacks of September 11, 2001, on videotape shown on Al Jazeera, October 29, 2004.