Neanderthal
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For decades the Neanderthals have been viewed as a hunched, hairy, stumbling, stupid cave man that lived tens of thousands of years ago. This image can be highly attributed to Marcellin Boule, [1] a French paleoanthropologist at the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1908, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints in southwestern France (see #Sites and Significant Fossils below) a nearly complete male skeleton was excavated and Boule spend the better part of three years examining this specimen. The man was old in terms of Neanderthal standards, aging between 40 and 50 years old and suffered from severe arthritis in his spine. This fact was discovered long after Boule described him as hunched over, practicing an inefficient shuffling gait type of bipedalism. His preconceptions, opposed to scientific objectivity, resulted in the misconception about the genus as a whole. Today this is reflected in not only in normal perception but shown in popular culture, specifically the insurance company that concludes their process is "So Easy, a Caveman Can Do It." Interestingly, these commercials counter react the misconceptions by having offended cavemen be present and engaged in modern, human-like behavior, highlighting the misconception placed by Boule a hundred years ago.
The Neanderthals (Also spelled Neandertal. The original German spelling includes an h but is pronounced as if no h is present.) [2] are an extinct nonmodern hominid that come chronologically extremely close to the modern era, becoming extinct less than 30,000 years ago. The classic Neanderthal traits are found from about 75,000 to 35,000 years ago, but it is difficult to date the initial appearance of this species. Without great dating techniques, the best early estimate comes from the Moula Guercy site in France dating the earliest appearance of Neanderthals to 120,000 years ago.
Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapien neanderthalensis? This may seem like an irrelevant question, but whether or not we classify Neanderthals in only our genus or as a subspecies of Homo sapiens is extremely interesting in terms of ancestry. It is largely believed that Neanderthals are not a direct ancestor of Homo sapien, being largely contemporaneous instead. if we label them Homo neanderthalensis, they branch ends, their line dies and ends there. But if we instead put them in our own species, the contact between Neanderthals and anatomically modern Homo sapiens becomes much more intriguing, for they would have the potential to interbreed. This debate is intensive and deeply rooted in discussion over a Replacement Model versus a Multiregional Model for the rise of fully modern humans.
Discovery
Neander Valley, literally translated in German as "Neandertal", in the German Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia, where the river Düssel flows to meet the Rhine. It is here that the first fossil to be recognized as a different kind of human was discovered. It this day in August of 1856 that many claim to be beginning of the field of paleoanthropology. Miners in search of limestone blasted open the entrance to a small cave, Feldhofer Cave (also called Feldhofer Grotto) where an array of fossilized bones were found. The miners mostly discarded the bones, but sat some aside to bring to a local school teacher, believing them to be bones from a cave bear. Included in this group was the skullcap that will eventually become the holotype of Homo neanderthalensis (see #Sites and Significant Fossils below). The fossil displays a long skull joining with very pronounced brow ridges above the orbits. In addition, the miners came across two femora, five arm bones, part of the left ilium, portions of a scapula and multiple ribs. These fossils were delivered to a school teacher and amateur natural historian, Johann Fuhlrott.[3]
Fuhlrott recognized the importance of the bones and quickly brought them to the professor of anatomy at the University of Bonn, Hermann Schaaffhausen. After much examination, the pair presented their discovery of the Neanderthaler ("Neanderthal Man")[4] in June of 1857 where they highlighted what they believed to be the great antiquity of the specimen. Unable to accurately describe the unusual cranial characteristics of the Neanderthaler, Schaaffhausen concluded that this individual must have belonged to an ancient aboriginal tribe residing in Germany before modern inhabitation, an anti-deluvian ancient race before the biblical flood, implying it is simply an inferior version of our own species.
This explanation, along with the emphasis Schaaffhausen and Fuhlrott were placing on the great antiquity of the Neanderthaler, was not well received in the scientific community. Many opposing views surface, one of the most recognized denied the age of the specimen and classified him as a Mongolian horseman soldier. The unusual profile would fit because of multiple head injuries sustained by a warrior, who would also have been impoverished, malnourished and developing diseases that would cause deformities. The brow ridges could have formed if this soldier was constantly frowning, which he would have done leading such an unfortunate existence. Another well received hypothesis was by a leading German scientist Rudolf Virchow. Virchow argues that the abnormal appearance of the skull was due to pathology[5], it was simply a particularly unfortunate affliction this individual suffered and there is no chance it was a different type of human. This idea became disingenuous as more specimens were found. Between this time and 1914 many new discoveries like Schaaffhausen's Neanderthaler were made in Germany, France, Belgium as well as Croatia. Following WWI, more discoveries were made in Italy, the Ukraine, the Near East and Central Asia. In 1861 William King acknowledges the primitive traits as well as the alignment with modern humans and named the genus Homo neanderthalensis. Today, Homo neanderthalensis is the most well studied of all the archaic Homo.[6]
Morphology
Cranial and Dental Morphology
Homo neanderthalensis has a skull that differs from fully modern humans on many points of interest. Overall, the structure is longer, lower and more robust.
- Cranial: Braincase and face
- The average brain volume has been estimated at 1520cc, larger than the 1350cc of modern Homo sapiens. This is often misleading because when compared to the average body size of each species, modern Homo sapiens have a proportionally larger brain, even if the Neanderthal brain is physically larger.[7] Endocasts point toward Neanderthal dominance on the cerebral, indicating the right and left spheres of the brain were specialized, in line with modern humans. [8]
- A relatively large face that is forwardly situated and characteristically has midfacial prognathism, as if it is being pulled forward by the nose.
- Cheekbones are swept back behind a large and open nasal cavity. They feature triangular peninsulas of pone that project into the nasal opining from both sides, increasing the surface area on mucus-producing membranes that, research suggests, aide in warming and humidifying the cold and dry air associated with the tundra environment of Neanderthals. [9]
- On the rear of the skull is what is commonly referred to as an "occipital bun" where an increase in bone surface area allows for more muscle attachment. It is at this point where certain neck muscles anchor into pits, the supeainias fossae. This adaptation leads to increased power in the neck and shoulders.
- Large, double arched bony brow ridges above the orbits. The brow ridges are functionally linked to the retracting forehead, as the forehead becomes less and less vertical, the brow ridges become necessary in order to absorb the heavy stress generated in the face during chewing.
- Dentition: Specialized chewing apparatus File:Tooth wear.jpgCranium and mandible from Shadinar Cave displaying classic Neanderthal characteristics.
- Very large incisors with reduced size in the rest of the dentition, also evidence of scraping animal and plant material against front teeth, leading to heavy wear. [10] This labial wear has been hypothesized to be due to Neanderthals holding animal hides in their teeth while cutting, scraping or processing them.
- Upper incisors built up by ridges on the side, "shovelled" or described as shovel shaped. [11]
- Taurodont post canine dentition resulting in an enlarged pulp cavity and fused roots that are not independent of one another.
- The back teeth often have additional cusps and taurodont ("bull-toothed") roots [12] produced by a delayed turning-in of the roots during dental formation. This results in the molars being poorly or only slightly separated from each other.[13]
- Very powerful musculature for a forwardly placed jaw. Increased mastoid tuberosity where temporal muscles attach on each side of the skull towards the rear of the braincase. The posterior temporal muscles aide in the use of the front teeth, hypothesized to increase productivity of scraping with the front teeth, thought to be very important to Neanderthal culture.
- A retromolar gap between M3, the last molar, and the ascending mandibular ramus, the extension of the jaw bone.
- A bony prominence next to the mandibular foramen, the hole that admits the mandibular nerve from the brain. This relates to the attachment of the sphenomandibular ligament which suspends and rotates the lower jaw, playing a role in stabilizing a large jaw during muscle actions.
Skeletal Morphology
The Neanderthal skeleton is most basically classified as big. In general their stature is 4" shorter than modern Homo sapiens and approximately 15 pounds heavier. The males average around 5'7" and the females 5'3". The largest male on record was discovered in Amud, Isreal at nearly 5'11", and the smallest female at La Ferrassie, France at 5'1".[14]
They are relatively wide with a stocky and broad torso and short extremities, with bowing of the limb bones. This general body shape reduces skin surface area and retains heat better than an anatomically modern Homo sapien, key to its cold weather environment. This is characterized as "hyperpolar" and is considered to be the most extremely anatomically adapted species among all hominids. [15] Neanderthals exhibit musculoskeletal hypertrophy [16], generally the bones are robust with large areas for muscle attachment.
- -Large shoulder and elbow joints
- -Large and wide rib cage
- -Long clavicle
- -Wide scapula with more muscle attachments at the rear
- -Bowed and short forearm leading to a strong gripping hand with wide fingertips.
- -Wide hips with an outwardly rotating, large hip joint
- -Rounded, curved and thick-walled femur shaft
- -A relatively acute angle between the shaft and neck of the femur when compared to modern Homo sapiens
- -Large and thick patella (knee)
- -Short and flattened, thick-walled tibia
- -Large ankle joint
- -Wide and strong toe bones
Unlike all of these features which follow a trend of increased muscle attachment and wider bones, the superior pubic ramus, the upper-front part of the pelvis, is much more gracile than expected. Being relatively long, thin and flattened, it had been suggested that it may have increased the birth canal to assist a small bodied mother birth a large headed infant, the large brain size needing a longer gestation period. But since this feature is also found in male specimens, it is believed to have widened the pelvis at the front to assist in rotating the blades of the pelvis outward along with the hip joint.[17][18]
Climate
Generally, the Neanderthals seemed able to inhabit areas where the mean winter temperatures fell well below the freezing point, probably between 5 degrees Fahrenheit and -5 degrees Fahrenheit. [19] This was the world of the ice age, with very little vegetation and the domain of megafauna.
During their 200,000 year existence, the Neanderthals encountered many fluctuations in climate and environment. A quarter of a million years ago marked the beginning of an interglacial stage, yet conditions were not interglacial maxima. [20] This variety of repeated climactic passes, ranging from temperate cool to glacial, are considered critical in the adaptation and selection process of the classic Neanderthal features that arise approximately 130,000 years ago. At this time, an interglacial period abruptly raised sea levels and receded ice caps. This period was a world of megafauna [21], straight- tusked elephants, narrow-nosed rhinoceroses, wooly mammoths and wooly rhinos inhabiting the same areas as the rising Neanderthals. The early glacial period between 115,000 and 75,000 years ago represents a downturn in temperature that would have worked against the survival of many megafauna species of the north Neanderthal environments. [22] At this time, the seas also fell as ice sheets grew, exposing small amounts of continental shelf. The next early glacial phase increased the surface of the continental shelf as temperatures dropped even more up to 30,000 years ago. Tree coverage nearly disappeared in the northern latitudes [23] and large frozen ground features such as ice wedges emerged. During this phase, particularly around 40,000 years ago, there was a series of small climactic fluctuation before the trend turned rapidly toward temperature decline,[24] presenting difficult situations for the Neanderthals to adapt to over short spurts of time. As the Neanderthals were going extinct around 30,000 years ago, during a full glacial period, the climate was marked by a global drop in sea levels and an even greater decline in overall temperature.
| Climatic conditions | Estimated years ago | Western Eurasia Hominid Evolution |
|---|---|---|
| Mainly temperate or cool, with some glacial intervals, Large oceans, small ice caps |
250,000-180,000 | Transitional 'archaic Homo sapiens to early Neanderthals in Europe. |
| Full glacial with some milder intervals. Small oceans, large ice caps |
180,000-130,000 | Early Neanderthals, fixation on many Neanderthal features in Europe. |
| Interglacial Last interglacial, warm conditions. Large oceans, small ice caps |
130,000-115,000 | Neanderthals in Europe and perhaps also in Middle East. |
| Early glacial: temperate/cool | 115,000-75,000 | Neanderthals (?) and Moderns in the Middle East |
| Early glacial: cool/glacial Ice caps increasing |
75,000-30,000 | Neanderthals extinct at end of this period. Moderns appear in Europe. |
| Full glacial | 30,000-13,000 | |
| Late glacial | 13,000-10,000 | |
| Postglacial (present interglacial) | 10,000- present |
This table is a composite of fig. 19 and fig. 20 taken from In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins by Christopher Stringer and Clive Gamble, New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
Culture
Mousterian tradition
The earliest examples of the Mousterian tradition date back to 150,000 years ago in France, possibly even earlier, and can be found as recently as 27,000 years ago in Spain. [25] It is characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic beginning 250,000 years ago, earlier tool industries including Oldowan and Acheulian being classified as the Lower Paleolithic. Named after the French site Le Moustier, Mousterian is not a replacement of the former Levallois technique but merely a refinement, producing smaller and more precise flakes from the core.[26] This technique is considered the first standardization of tool production. The French prehistorian François Bordes recognized the highly variable specimens attributed to the Mousterian tradition and defines 63 different tools for either cutting, slicing, piercing, scraping, sawing or pounding. [27] This variability over time and geographic range is often attributed to locally available raw materials for the specific Neanderthal population, as well as their climate and environment as a whole. [28] Bordes suggests categorizing the 63 tools in terms of five coexisting Neanderthal Cultures. Lewis and Sally Binford view these five groupings as five sets of tool kits that represent the same group, not separate localized cultures. [29] Another hypothesis comes from Harold Dibble in 1987 who believes that the large frequency of notably different tools is not evidence for many task specific types but instead is showing us different stages in the use of the tool. [30] It requires hundreds of blows in order to shape and sharpen the edge of a flake once it has been removed from its core, and this edge would require refinement after frequent use and dulling of the tool.[31] The 63 tools are not distinct, but rather showing us how Neanderthals prolonged the use of their Mousterian stone tools as long as possible.
The Mousterian tool industry is immediately followed, usually seen as a transitional period, by the Châtelperronian tool industry. Being very short lived, evidence only ranging from 36,000 to 32,000 years ago, it welcomes in the Upper Paleolithic. There is much overlap between Mousterian and Châtelperronian only diverging with the presence of long, thin blade tools that are exactly what characterize the Aurignacian [32] tradition of later anatomically modern Homo sapiens of the Upper Paleolithic. It is viewed as a mixing of techniques of the Neanderthals and fully modern Homo sapiens that inhabited the same locations.[33] This hybridized technology is found primarily in France, seen at Neanderthal sites such as Saint-Césaire and Arcy-sur-Cure. [34]
Subsistence
Neanderthals are classically thought of as subsiding primarily on animal meat. This idea has overshadowed the fact that plants and vegetation provided some percent of the diet of Neanderthals, but direct evidence for plant resources is scarcer and less interesting to our culture. Instead, there is abundant evidence for animal protein as a large part of their diet, a fact that is not surprising considering the tundra like environment, riddled with megafauna, where the Neanderthals lived.
At the Kebara Cave in Isreal, an large amount of gazelle and fallow dear have been uncovered in association with Neanderthals, showing there was a breadth of animal subsistence for the cave inhabitants. [35] There is evidence of both burning and cut marks on the animal bone, but there is also carbonized seeds of wild peas found in the hearth showing that in addition to the large amount of animal food, locally available vegetable foods were utilized. [36]
In Iran, Curtis Marean and SooYeum Kim excavated the Kobeh Cave in 19998 to discover the upper and lower limbs of wild goats, the meat rich portions of the animal.[37] These cuts of meat would unlikely be left behind by other carnivores for the Neanderthals to scavenge, and cut marks are present where it would be expected in order for hunters to get at the best meat. In addition to the cut marks, percussion marks made from being struck by a stone hammer are present, presumably in order to get at the protein rich marrow inside the bone. [38]
Chemical analysis of bones has also been conducted in order to determine Neanderthal diet. Through nitrogen isotope analysis, the ratio of carbon and nitrogen can be determined and compared to other known herbivores, omnivores and carnivores in order to base a comparison. Herbivores end up on the lower end of the spectrum of nitrogen isotopes, and Neanderthals are associated much more closely with the carnivores. This technique was carried out at Vindija Cave in Croatia and placed the Neanderthals in line with contemporary carnivores such as saber-toothed cats. [39] Overall, it appears that Neanderthals are eating a ton of animal food. This technique is imperfect and may not be revealing the entire spectrum of Neanderthal diet, but instead showing us that the vast majority of dietary protein for the Neanderthals is animal food. This analysis of the collagen of the bone would be swamped with the animal protein and is often misinterpreted as them being nearly completely carnivorous, when instead it more suggests they were highly omnivorous with protein intake from animal meat.
Compassion and Community
A surprising amount of Neanderthal specimens seem to have survived to a ripe old age in extremely poor condition. Eric Trinkaus relates the type and sheer quantity of Neanderthal bone breaks to be similar to that of modern rodeo riders. This idea relates to their hunting style, suggesting that they sustained many injuries while being so close to their prey. Also by examining preserved dentition, it has been estimated that about 57% of Neanderthal individuals had dental hypoplasia, where enamel growth is halted in tooth development often associated with vitamin deficiency, infectious disease or trauma. [40] It is unquestionable that Neanderthals experienced a lot of hardship during their typical lifespan, yet somehow many survived for many years. Enamel hypoplasia often occurs during early childhood, as do the formation of Harris lines - cracks of the end of long limb bones resulting from dietary deficiency during childhood developing years [41] that are often found in Neanderthals. This shows that it was not only the stress of hunting and adulthood, but early life was also very traumatic for Neanderthal individuals.
This longevity is largely attributed to compassion and social care for incapacitated individuals.[42] The "Old Man" of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, studies by Boule, only had two teeth left when he died. The specimen from Shadinar Cave, Iraq (#Sites and Significant Fossils) Shanidar 1 took a crushing blow to his left orbit, probably blinding him and potentially causing brain damage; he also had one withered arm and had lost his other forearm entirely. All of this degenerative trauma left him incapable of moving efficiently and he would only have survived between 40 and 45 years (equivalent of 80 modern human years) with the assistance of others. There is a pattern seen across sites of old age specimens with disease or trauma who would have required care from others in their community.
Symbolism, Rituals and Burials
The Middle Paleolithic culture has been paralleled with modern humans, suggesting that the Neanderthals performed ritualistic behavior and had the emotional capacity that is in line with modern Homo sapiens. [43] Not only have many examples of intentional burial been discovered, but evidence of a bear burial at Regourdou, burned and broken bones implying cannibalism, cave bear skulls found at Drachenloch,[44] and many others suggest ritualistic and symbolic behavior showing a human-like awareness and spirituality. This belief, though, has been highly criticized and blame has been shoved to the archaeologists for always assuming that the archaeological record context is always intentional and purposely arranged.
Burials
Most solid evidence we have is for intentional burials, but the intention the Neanderthals had for burying their dead is questioned. Were Neanderthals displaying a sense of the afterlife and the importance of death, or merely disposing of bodies in order to remove them from living areas and to not attract predators? Many believe that the Neanderthals had no foresight into their burials, it was not ceremonial or may even have has significance that is impossible for anthropologists to imagine or comprehend.[45] One problem in deciphering this practice is many of the sites were excavated so long ago that proper precautions were not taken in order to determine intentional burial. Many sites, including La Ferrassie and Saint- Césaire have no evidence of a grave pit, but in contrast there is a very clear pit at Chapelle-aux-Saints.
Many of the uncovered burials reveal the Neanderthal skeleton in a flexed position, crouched with knees drawn up to chest and occasionally the head pillowed on an arm. [46] [47] Burying the dead in this position is practiced by modern cultures in order to mimic the fetus of the womb, in a sense being birthed into the afterlife. Simple grave goods are found alongside the bodies, usually stone or bone artifacts, occasional ochre used as red pigmentation that would suggest ritualistic behavior,
and common animal bone. It is difficult to determine whether these grave goods, not being elaborate or exotic but rather daily fare, were intentionally placed in order to accompany the dead in an afterlife or whether they just circumstantially ended up in the grave pit or near the dead body. [48]
Between 1957 and 1961 Shanidar Cave (#Sites and Significant Fossils) was excavated and nine burials were found. The specimen Shanidar 4 has drawn the most attention and is referred to as the "flower burial".[49] Along with the intentionally flexed body, lots of fossilized pollen was recovered indicating plants and flowers were inserted into the grave pit. It is unlikely the flowers were blown in, and some others have argued a rodent could have played a part. Considering the types of pollen are mostly medicinal which would be ill-tasting to rodents and unlikely to be highly concentrated, there is little doubt that the flowers were put there by human agency. The purpose, ritualistic or otherwise, is impossible to decipher.
Symbolism
There is very little evidence of art and symbolism on behalf of the Neanderthals. That element of culture is generally associated with fully modern humans in the past 50,000 years or so, but there are rare occurances of art. Examples of grooved or perforated animal teeth, polished ivory, and geometrically incised bone and ivory can be found at Neanderthal sites [50] and represent the closest thing that could be called artistic and symbolic expression of the Neanderthals. In France at the site Acry-sur-Cure is one of the largest caches of potential artistic objects, with over 142 perforated objects that may have been used as personal ornamentation. [51]
Cannibalism
At the Krapina site in Croatia, over a thousand Neanderthal bones have been uncovered with a MNI (minimum number of individuals) of over 80. What is intriguing about this site is that the bones are smashed to pieces and over 800 cut marks have been documented on them. Gorjanović concluded from his excavations here that this fragmentary state of human remains was due to the practice of cannibalism.[52] It is difficult to deny that this is strong evidence for cannibalistic practice among the Neanderthals. Yet processing and eating one another may have many ritualistic implications, or they may have simply been preparing the dead for burial. The truth is lost with the Neanderthals, but the practice is obvious. Also at the Moula Guercy site in France are their clearly butchered Neanderthal remains that are disassembled much like the Neanderthals butchered their deer, suggesting that they were eating the flesh as they ate the deer flesh.
Sites and Significant Fossils
Neander Valley, Germany
Neanderthal 1
This skull cap is the type specimen fossil that all other Neanderthal classifications are based upon, it is the holotype. The brow ridges jut out, leading to the largely horizontal forehead. The cranium is long and low, all features that came to be characteristic of Homo neanderthalensis.
Shanidar Cave, Iraq
Shanidar Cave is located in the Zagros Mountains of north-eastern Iraq. Ralph Solecki and his team excavated the relatively inaccessible cave between 1957 and 1961, discovering the first adult Neanderthal skeletons in Iraq. The site is best known for its evidence of ritualistic burial in pits lined with flowers and for evidence of compassion, having an adult specimen display trauma related injuries and still living to an old age presumably due to help from others.
La Ferrassie, France
This cave site, located in the Les Eyzies region of the Periogord Dordogne Valley of France, is interpreted as having eight individual intentional burials of two adult and six Neanderthal children. These burials date to approximately 35,000 years ago. The specimen La Ferrassie I is one of the most complete Neanderthal skeletons ever discovered. [53]
La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France
This site in France is where the "Old Man" of La Chapelle was discovered and analyzed by Marcellin Boule. Shows much evidence of burial with vrey clear grave pits. Also excavated in 1908 by Abbots Amédée, Jean Bouyssonie and Louis Bardon.
Spy, Belgium
References
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Hoffecker, John F. A Prehistory of the North: Human Settlement of the Higher Latitudes. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2005.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Hoffecker, John F. A Prehistory of the North: Human Settlement of the Higher Latitudes. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2005.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Hoffecker, John F. A Prehistory of the North: Human Settlement of the Higher Latitudes. New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 2005.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ "Dental Enamel Hypoplasia." Online Medical Dictionary. 29 Apr. 2008 <http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?dental+enamel+hypoplasia>.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Pettitt, P. B. "Neanderthal Lifecycles: Developmental and Social Phases in the Lives of the Last Archaics." World Archaeology 3rd ser. 31 (2000): 351-366. JSTOR. University of Colorado At Boulder, Boulder. 16 Apr. 2008. Keyword: Shanidar.
- ↑ Gargett, Robert H. "Grave Shortcomings: the Evidence for Neandertal Burial [and Comments and Reply]." Current Anthropology 2nd ser. 30 (1989): 157-190. JSTOR. University of Colorado At Boulder, Boulder CO. 28 Apr. 2008. Keyword: Shanidar. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743544
- ↑ Gargett, Robert H. "Grave Shortcomings: the Evidence for Neandertal Burial [and Comments and Reply]." Current Anthropology 2nd ser. 30 (1989): 157-190. JSTOR. University of Colorado At Boulder, Boulder CO. 28 Apr. 2008. Keyword: Shanidar. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2743544/
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Stringer, Christopher, and Clive Gamble. In Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the Puzzle of Human Origins. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1993.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Kenneth L. Feder The Past in Perspective: An Introduction to Human Prehistory 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2007.
- ↑ Tattersall, Ian. The Last Neanderthal. New York: Macmillan, 1995.
- ↑ Hirst, K. Kris. ""La Ferrassie Cave (France)"" About.Com: Archaeology. 2008. Dictionary of Archaeology. 28 Apr. 2008 <http://archaeology.about.com/od/fterms/g/laferrassie.htm>.